EDUC 872 Book Review Guide In this assignment, you will write a 5-page book review in current APA format that focuses on the required Make It Stick: The Science of (2023)

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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FÅ DET TIL KLÆB. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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få det til at hænge sammen The Science of Effective Learning Peter C. Brown Henry L. Roediger III Mark A. McDaniel BELKNAP PRESS fra HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England 2014 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick: The Science of Effective Learning / Peter C. Brown, Henry L. Roediger, Mark A. McDaniel. pages cm Contains bibliographic references and index. ISBN 978-0-674-72901-8 1. Learning - research. 2. Cognition - research. 3. Learning skills.

I. Titel.

LB1060.B768 2014 370,15'23 — dc23 2013038420 Brown, Peter C. i in. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/ lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Hukommelsen er al visdoms moder. Aeschylus Prometheus Bound Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Contents Preface ix 1 Science is misunderstood 1 2 Learning, recovering 23 3 Mixing up your practice 46 4 Overcoming difficulties 67 5 Avoiding illusions about knowledge 102 6 Moving beyond learning styles 131 7 Increasing your skills 162 8 Making them stick 200 Suggested reading 257 285 Acknowledgments 289 Index 295 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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ix People generally learn the wrong way. Empirical research into how we learn and remember shows that much of what we think is gospel about how to learn turns out to be a futile effort. Even university and medical students whose majors are science are dependent on learning techniques that are far from optimal. At the same time, this field of research, which has been going on for 125 years but has been especially fruitful in recent years, has produced a series of insights that constitute the new science of learning: highly effective, evidence-based strategies to replace less effective but widely accepted practices that they are rooted in theory, tradition and intuition. However, there is a catch: the most effective learning strategies are not intuitive. Two of us, Henry Roediger and Mark McDaniel, are cognitive scientists who have dedicated their careers to the study of learning and memory. Peter Brown is a storyteller. We have a foreword by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Preface êx has joined forces to explain how learning and memory work, and we do this not so much by reciting research findings as by telling stories of people who found their way to mastering complex knowledge and skills. With these examples we explain the principles of learning, which according to research are very effective. This book was written in part in collaboration with eleven cognitive psychologists. In 2002, James S.

The McDonnell Foundation of St. Louis, Missouri, in an effort to better bridge the gap between fundamental knowledge of learning in cognitive psychology and its application to education, awarded the "Applying Cognitive Psychology to Enhance Educational Practice" research grant to Roediger and McDaniel and nine others, with Roediger as principal investigator .

The team collaborated for ten years on research to translate cognitive science into educational science, and in many ways this book is a direct result of that work. The researchers and much of their research is cited in the book, the notes and our acknowledgements. Roediger and McDaniel's work is also supported by several other donors, and McDaniel is co-director of the Center for Integrative Research in Learning and Memory at the University of Washington. Most books cover topics in series—they cover one topic, move on to the next, and so on. We follow this strategy in that each chapter covers new topics, but we also apply the book's two basic learning principles: repeating key ideas at intervals and interweaving different but related topics. If students spread out their study of a topic and return to it at regular intervals, they retain it better.

Likewise, if they intertwine the study of different subjects, they learn each subject better than if they studied them one by one in sequence. In this way, we shamelessly cover key ideas more than once, repeating the principles in different contexts throughout the book.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Preface ê xi The reader will remember them better and, as a result, use them more effectively. This is a book about what people can do for themselves now to learn better and remember longer. The responsibility for learning lies with the individual. Also, teachers and trainers can now be more effective in helping students understand these principles and incorporate them into the learning process. This is not a book about how to reform education policy or the school system.

This of course has political consequences. For example, college professors who excel at using these strategies in the classroom have experimented with their potential to reduce the science achievement gap, and the results of these studies are eye-opening. We write, of course, for students and teachers and for all readers for whom effective learning is a priority: for educators in business, industry and the military; for leaders of professional associations offering professional development to their members; and for coaches. We also write for middle-aged or older lifelong learners who want to hone their skills to stay in the game. While much remains to be discovered about learning and its neural basis, a large body of research has provided principles and practical strategies that can be applied immediately, without cost, and with great impact.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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1 Early in his piloting career, Matt Brown was flying a twin-engine Cessna northeast of Harlingen, Texas, when he noticed a drop in oil pressure in the starboard engine. He was alone, flying through the night at eleven thousand feet, making a high-speed cargo flight to a factory in Kentucky that had shut down the production line and was waiting for parts to be assembled. He lowered altitude and watched the oil gauge, hoping to reach the scheduled fuel stop in Louisiana where he could service the plane, but the pressure continued to drop. Matt had been messing with piston engines since he was old enough to hold a wrench and knew he had a problem.

He ran a mental checklist as he weighed his options. If he lets the oil pressure drop too low, he risks engine stalling. How far could it fly before it shut it down? What would happen if he did? It would lose promise to the right, 1 Learning Is Misunderstood Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 2, but could it stay in the air? He ran through the remembered tolerances for the Cessna 401. The barn was the best you could do on one engine, slow the descent. But it had a light load and burned most of its fuel. So he shut down the inoperative starboard engine, adjusted the propellers to reduce drag, increased power on the port side, flew the opposite rudder, and limped another ten kilometers toward his intended stop. There he made a wide left turn for the simple but critical reason that with no power to his right, it was only at the left turn that he still had the lift needed to level off for the touchdown.

While we don't need to understand every single thing Matt does, he certainly did, and his ability to get out of trouble illustrates what we mean in this book when we talk about learning: we mean acquiring knowledge and skills and have them readily available from memory so you can understand future problems and opportunities. There are a few immutable aspects of learning that we can probably all agree on: First, learning requires memory to be useful, so that what we learn is available later when we need it. Second, we must learn and remember throughout our lives. We cannot get through middle school without having some mastery of language arts, math, science and social studies.

Progress at work requires you to master professional skills and have difficult employees. When we retire, we develop new interests. In our madness, we move to simpler apartments while still being able to adapt. If you study well, you have an advantage in life. Third, learning is an acquired skill, and the most effective strategies are often counterintuitive.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning is misunderstood 3 statements in this book. You may not agree with the last point, but we hope to convince you. Here, more or less unadorned in list form, are some of the main claims we make in support of our argument. We will present them in more detail in the following chapters. Learning is deeper and more lasting when it requires effort.

Learning that is easy is like writing in the sand, here today and tomorrow. We judge poorly when we learn well and when we don't. When work is harder and slower and doesn't feel productive, we gravitate toward strategies that seem more fruitful, unaware that the benefits of those strategies are often temporary. Rereading text and mass practice of skills or new knowledge are by far the preferred learning strategies for students at any level, but they are also some of the least productive. By collective practice, we mean the unanimous, rapid repetition of something you're trying to burn into your memory, the "practice-practice-practice" of conventional wisdom. An example is cramming for an exam. Rereading and mass practice create a sense of fluency that is considered a sign of mastery, but for true mastery or permanence, these strategies are largely a waste of time. The practice of recalling—recalling facts, concepts, or events from memory—is a more effective learning strategy than rereading. Flashcards are a simple example. Retrieval strengthens memory and interrupts forgetting. A single, simple quiz after reading a text or listening to a lecture provides better learning and memory than re-reading the text or reviewing lecture notes. While the brain is not a muscle that gets stronger with exercise, the neural pathways that make up the learning body get stronger when memory is Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 4 is downloaded and learning is practiced. Periodic practice stops forgetting, strengthens recovery pathways, and is essential to retaining the knowledge you wish to acquire. When you split the exercise into one task and get a little rusty between sessions, or switch to practicing two or more topics, the search is more difficult and seems less productive, but the effort leads to longer learning and allows for more extensive application in later situations. Trying to solve a problem before teaching it a solution leads to better learning, even if mistakes were made during the attempt. The popular notion that you learn better when you are instructed in a format that matches your preferred learning style, such as being an auditory or visual learner, is not supported by empirical research. People have many kinds of intelligence that they can use in the learning process, and you learn better when you "stretch" out all your talents and ingenuity than when you limit your teaching or experience to the style that suits you best. responsible. When you are good at extracting rules of thumb or "rules" that distinguish between types of problems, you will be more successful in choosing the right solutions in unfamiliar situations.

This skill is better achieved through interwoven and varied practice than through mass practice. For example, interweaving practice in calculating the volume of different types of geometric solids increases the ability to choose the correct solution when the later test presents a random solid. Interspersing bird type identifications or oil painting improves your ability to both learn unifying attributes within a type and to distinguish between types, improving your ability to categorize new specimens you later encounter. We are all susceptible to delusions that can overwhelm our judgment of what we know and can do. Tests help calibrate Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning is misunderstood ê 5 of our assessments about what we have learned. A pilot responding to a failure of hydraulic systems in a flight simulator quickly discovers if he is up to date with corrective procedures. In virtually all areas of study, you build better mastery when you use tests as a tool to identify and discuss your weaknesses. Any new science requires a foundation of previous knowledge.

You need to know how to land a twin engine airplane on two engines before you learn how to land on one. To learn trigonometry, remember your algebra and geometry. To learn carpentry, you need to master the properties of wood and composite materials, how to assemble boards, cut rebates, mill edges and miter corners. In a cartoon by Far Side cartoonist Gary Larson, a bulging-eyed student asks his teacher, "Sir. Osborne, may I excuse you? My brain is full!" If you simply engage in mechanical repetition, it is true that you quickly reach the limit of what you can remember. But if you practice drawing, there is no known limit to how much you can learn. Elaboration is the process of making sense of new material by expressing it in your own words and combining it with what you already know. The more you explain how your new learning relates to your previous knowledge, the stronger your understanding of the new learning will be and the more connections you will make that will help you remember it later. Warm air can contain more moisture than cold air; To prove this is true from your own experience, you might think of water dripping from the back of an air conditioner, or how a balmy summer day turns to the cooler side after a sudden thunderstorm.

Evaporation has a cooling effect: you know this because your uncle's humid day in Atlanta is hotter than your cousin's dry day in Phoenix, where the sweat disappears before the skin gets moist. When studying Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 6 principles of heat transfer, you understand conduction by warming your hand around a hot cup of cocoa; radiation from the way the sun gathers in the cave on a winter's day; convection from the air conditioner's life-saving blast as your uncle slowly guides you through Atlanta's favorite back streets. Putting new knowledge into a larger context helps with learning. For example, the more you know about the story unfolding, the more you can learn from it. And the more ways you give that story meaning, e.g. by combining it with your understanding of human ambition and the messiness of fate, the more memorable the story becomes. Likewise, if you're trying to learn an abstraction like the angular momentum principle, it's easier when you base it on something concrete you already know, like the way a figure skater accelerates her rotation when she pulls her arms toward her chest. People who learn to extract key ideas from new material and organize them into a mental model and combine that model with prior knowledge show an advantage in learning complex mastery. A mental model is a mental representation of some external reality. 1 Think of a baseball batsman waiting on the field. He has less than a second to figure out if it's a curveball, changeup, or something else. How does he do it?

There are a few subtle cues that help: the way the pitcher wraps the ball, the way he throws, the seam of the ball. The big hitter rejects all external perceptual distractions by seeing only these pitch differences and, through practice, creates distinct mental models based on a different set of cues for each type of pitch. He combines these models with what he knows about jumping position, strike zone and swinging to stay above the ball. He associates them with the mental models of player positions: If he has guys on first and second, he might sacrifice himself to move the runners forward. If he has people at first and third and one is out, he has Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning is misunderstood ê 7 Don't double play while still hitting to score. His mental models of player positioning combine with those of his opponent (are they playing deep or shallow?) In a great attack, all these elements come together seamlessly: the batter connects to the ball and drives it through a hole in the field, buying time. to come first and foremost of your people. Because he selected all but the most important elements to identify and respond to each type of court, constructed mental models based on this knowledge, and combined these models with his mastery of other essential elements of this complex game, an experienced player has a better chance of score than a less experienced person who is unable to understand the vast and fluctuating information she encounters every time she approaches the board. Many people believe that their intellectual abilities are inscribed from birth and that failure in school is an indictment of their innate abilities. But every time you learn something new, you change your brain – the remnants of your experiences are stored. It is true that we start life with the gift of our genes, but it is also true that we become skilled through learning and developing mental models that enable us to reason, solve problems and create. In other words, the elements that shape your intellectual abilities are surprisingly under your control. Understanding that this is the case allows you to see failure as a sign of effort and a source of useful information—the need to dig deeper or try a different strategy. The need to understand that when learning is hard, you are doing important work. To understand that striving and failing, as with any action video game or new BMX bike stunt, is essential if you want to surpass your current level of striving for true knowledge. Making mistakes and correcting them builds the bridge to advanced learning.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 8 Empiri vs. theory, knowledge and intuition Much of the way we organize training and teaching is based on learning theories we acquire, which are shaped by our own sense of what works, sensibilities drawn from our personal experiences as teachers, coaches, students and ordinary people on earth. The way we teach and learn is largely a mixture of theory, tradition and intuition.

But for the past forty years and more, cognitive psychologists have been working to gather evidence to explain what works and discover strategies that produce results.

Cognitive psychology is the basic science concerned with understanding how the mind works, conducting empirical research into how people perceive, remember and think. Many others also have their hands in the learning puzzle. Developmental and educational psychologists deal with theories of human development and how they can be used to shape educational tools – such as test frameworks, instructional organizers (e.g. subject outlines and schematic illustrations) and resources for special groups such as and talent training. Neuroscientists using new imaging techniques and other tools are advancing our understanding of the brain mechanisms underlying learning, but we are still far from knowing what neuroscience will tell us about how to improve education. How do you know whose advice to use, how to best learn? It is wise to be skeptical. Tips are easy to find, just a few mouse clicks away. However, not all advice is based on research – far from it. Also, not everything that goes into research meets the standards of science, such as having proper control conditions to ensure that research results are objective. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning is misunderstood ê 9 and can be generalized. The best empirical research is experimental: a researcher develops a hypothesis and then tests it with a set of experiments that must meet strict criteria for design and objectivity. In the following chapters, we have distilled the results of a large number of such studies, which were reviewed by the scientific community before being published in peer-reviewed journals. In some of these studies, we are collaborators, but not the lion's share. We talk about it where we propose theory rather than scientifically proven results. To make our case, in addition to proven science, we use anecdotes from people like Matt Brown, whose jobs require mastery of complex knowledge and skills, stories that illustrate the fundamental principles of learning and memory. Discussion of the research itself has been kept to a minimum, but much of it can be found in the footnotes at the end of the book if you wish to delve further. People don't understand learning It turns out that much of what we've been doing as teachers and students isn't serving us well, but some relatively simple changes can make a big difference. People commonly think that if you expose yourself to something enough times – e.g. an excerpt from a textbook or a set of terms from eighth grade biology class—you can burn it into your memory. not at all. Many teachers believe that if they can make learning easier and faster, learning will be better. Many studies turn this belief upside down: when learning is more difficult, it is stronger and lasts longer.

Teachers, coaches and trainers commonly believe that the most effective way to master a new skill is to focus on it with persistence and single-mindedness, practicing over and over again until you master it. Our belief in this is deep because most of us see quick gains in the learning phase of mass practice. What is Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 10 Studies show that the benefits of massive training are temporary and disappear quickly. The discovery that rereading textbooks is often futile should send shivers down the spines of teachers and students, because it is the most important learning strategy for most people—including more than 80 percent of students in some studies—and is central to what we say to do in the hours we spend studying. Rereading has three attacks against him. It is time consuming. It does not provide persistent memory. And it often involves a kind of unconscious self-deception, as increasing familiarity with the text begins to resemble mastery of the content. Hours spent rereading may look like due diligence, but the amount of time spent learning is not a measure of mastery. 2 You don't have to look far to find training systems that rely heavily on the belief that exposure alone leads to learning. Consider Matt Brown, the pilot. When Matt was ready to transition from piston aircraft, he had to master a whole new knowledge to get certified for the business jet he was going to fly. We asked him to describe the process. His employer sent him eight days of teenage training, ten hours a day, in what Matt called "the fire hose". We spent the first seven days straight in the classroom learning about all the airplane systems: electrical, fuel, pneumatic, etc. temperature and speed. Matt must have about eighty different "action memories" at his immediate disposal—actions to be taken without hesitation or thought in order to stabilize the aircraft when any of a dozen unexpected events occur. It could be sudden decompression, thrust reverser unlocking in flight, engine failure, electrical system fire.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning is misunderstood ê 11 Matt and his fellow pilots stared for hours at the amazing PowerPoint illustrations of their aircraft's main systems. Then something interesting happened. "About halfway through day five," said Matt, "they show a diagram of the fuel system on the screen with pressure sensors, shut-off valves, ejector pumps, bypass lines and so on and so forth. trying to stay focused. Then one of the instructors asks us : "Has anyone here had their fuel filter bypass light come on in flight?" The pilot across the room raises his hand. So the instructor says, "Tell us what happened," and suddenly you're like, "Wow , what if it was me?” “So this guy was at 33,000 feet or so and he's about to lose both engines because he got fuel without antifreeze and his filters are clogged with ice. You hear this story and believe me, this pattern comes alive and sticks with you. Jet fuel can usually contain some water, and when it gets cold at high altitudes, the water condenses and can freeze and plug the line. So every time you fill up, be careful and make sure you look for a sign on the fuel truck that says the fuel contains Prist, which is antifreeze. And if you ever see this light come on during flight, you will quickly descend into warmer air. 3 Science is stronger when it applies, when the abstract is concrete and personal. Then the nature of Matt's instructions changed. The next eleven days were spent on a mixture of classroom activities and a flight simulator. Here, Matt described the kind of active engagement that leads to lasting learning, as pilots had to struggle with their aircraft to demonstrate mastery of standard operating procedures, respond to unexpected situations, and train rhythm and physical memory. movements required in the cockpit to handle them.

The flight simulator allows you to practice retrieving, and Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 12 is spread out, intertwined and varied, covering as much as possible the same mental processes that Matt evokes at altitude. In the simulator, the summary becomes concrete and personal. The simulator is also a series of tests that help Matt and his instructors assess what he needs to focus on to develop his mastery.

In some places, such as in Matt Brown's flight simulator, teachers and trainers have found very effective teaching techniques, but in virtually every field these techniques are the exception, and "fire hose" (or equivalent) lectures are all too often the norm. In fact, what is recommended to students is often just wrong.

For example, the study guidelines on George Mason University's website advise: "The key to good learning is repetition; the more times you review the material, the better chance you have of retaining it permanently." 4 Another posted on the Dartmouth College website suggests, "If you want to remember something, you probably will." 5 A public service article that appears from time to time in St. Louis Post-Dispatch, offering study advice, shows a child with his nose buried in a book. "Concentrate," reads the caption. "Concentrate on one thing and one thing only. Repeat, repeat, repeat! Repeating what you need to remember can help burn it into your memory." 6. Belief in the power of re-reading, intentionality and repetition is ubiquitous, but the truth is that you usually can't commit anything to your memory just by repeating it over and over. This tactic may work when you look up a phone number and hold it in memory as you type it into your phone, but it doesn't work for continuous learning. A simple example, reproduced online (search for "penny memory test"), shows a dozen different paintings by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Science is misunderstood ê 13 cents, of which only one is correct. How many times have you seen a crown, it is difficult for you to say for sure which one it is. Similarly, a recent survey asked faculty and students who worked in the psychology building at UCLA to identify the fire extinguisher closest to their office. Most passed the test. A professor who had been at UCLA for twenty-five years skipped a safety class and decided to look for the fire extinguisher closest to his office. He was right next to his office door, just inches from the doorknob he turned every time he entered his office. So in this case, even years of repeated exposure hadn't taught him where to grab the nearest fire extinguisher if his waste container caught fire. Early evidence The misconception that repeated exposure builds memory has been well established in a series of studies dating back to the mid-1960s, when psychologist Endel Tulving of the University of Toronto began testing people for their ability to remember lists of common English nouns. In the first phase of the experiment, participants simply read a list of subject pairs six times (for example, a pair in a list might be “chair - 9”); they did not expect a memory test. The first element of each pair was always a noun. After reading the listed pairs six times, participants were told that they would be given a list of nouns that they would be asked to recall. For one group of people, the nouns were the same nouns they had read six times in the previous reading phase; for another group, the nouns they had to learn were different from those they had read before. Interestingly, Tulving found that the two groups did not differ in learning nouns—the learning curves were statistically indistinguishable. Intuition Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 14 would suggest otherwise, but the earlier exposure did not help with later evocation. Repetition alone did not improve the learning process. Subsequent research by many researchers has placed more emphasis on the question of whether repeated exposure or longer periods of holding ideas in the mind contributes to later recall, and these studies have confirmed and extended the conclusions that repetition itself does not lead to long . -time memory. 8 These findings led researchers to investigate the benefits of rereading texts. In a 2008 article published in the journal Contemporary Educational Psychology, Washington University researchers described a series of studies they conducted at their school and the University of New Mexico to shed light on rereading as a strategy to improve comprehension and recall of prose.

Like most studies, these studies built on previous work by others; some have shown that when the same text is read many times, the same conclusions and connections between topics are drawn, and others have suggested modest benefits of rereading. These benefits were found in two different situations. At the first stage, some students read and re-read the study material immediately, while others only once. Both groups took the test immediately after reading, and the group that read twice did slightly better than the group that read once.

However, in the delayed test, the benefits of immediate rereading disappeared, and rereaders performed at the same level as single readers. In the second situation, students read the material for the first time and then wait a few days before reading it again. This group, after taking staggered readings of the text, did better on the test than the group that did not reread the material. 9 Later experiments conducted at the University of Washington to clarify some of the questions raised in earlier studies assessed the benefits of rereading among students by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning is misunderstood ê 15 different skills in a learning situation similar to what students encounter in the classroom. A total of 148 students read five different passages taken from textbooks and Science American.

The students were at two different universities; some were very good readers, others had poor abilities; some students read the material only once, while others read it twice in a row. Then everyone answered questions to demonstrate what they had learned and remembered. In these experiments, multiple readings in rapid succession were not found to be an effective learning method for any group, school, or environment. In fact, the researchers found no benefit to rereading under these conditions. What is the conclusion? Reading the text once makes sense if a significant amount of time has passed since the first reading, but repeated reading in rapid succession is a time-consuming strategy with negligible benefits at the expense of much more efficient reading. strategies that take less time.

But student surveys confirm what professors have known for a long time: Highlighting, underlining, and constantly drilling through notes and text are by far the most common learning strategies. 10 Illusions About Knowledge If rereading is highly effective, why do students prefer it?

One of the reasons may be that they receive bad study advice. But there is another, more subtle way they push them to this method of review, a phenomenon mentioned earlier: increased text familiarity and reading fluency can create an illusion of mastery. Any professor will attest that students work hard to catch the exact wording of the sentences they hear in lectures, laboring under the mistaken belief that the essence of the subject lies in the syntax in which it is described. Mastering Brown , Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 16 lecture or text is not the same as mastering the ideas behind them. But repeated reading gives the illusion of mastery of the basic ideas. Don't be fooled. The fact that you can repeat phrases in text or lecture notes does not mean that you understand the meaning of the precepts they describe, their application, or how they relate to what you already know about the subject. All too often, a college professor answers a knock on his office door only to find a distressed freshman asking to discuss his low grade on the first introductory psychology test. How is it possible? He attended all the lectures and took meticulous notes. He read the text and underlined the critical passages. How did he study for the test? she asks.

Well, he went back and marked his notes, then reviewed the marked notes and highlighted text material several times until he felt he knew everything thoroughly. How is it possible that he got a D on the exam? Did he use the set of key concepts at the back of each chapter to test himself? Could you look at a term like "conditioned stimulus", define it, and use it in a paragraph? As he read, did he think of turning the main points of the text into a series of questions and then trying to answer them as he studied? Did he at least rephrase the main ideas in his own words as he read? Was he trying to relate them to what he already knew? Did he look for examples outside the text? The answer was no in all cases. He considers himself an exemplary student, diligent to the extreme, but the truth is that he does not know how to study effectively. The delusion of mastery is an example of poor metacognition: what we know about what we know. Accuracy in assessing what you know and what you don't know is very important. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning is misunderstood ê 17 for decision making. The problem was famously (and prophetically) summed up by Secretary of State Donald Rumsfeld in a 2002 press briefing on US intelligence about Iraq's possible possession of weapons of mass destruction: “There are known; there are things we know, we know.

There are known unknowns; that is, there are things we now know that we do not know. But there are also unknown unknowns – there are things we don't know that we don't know'. The emphasis here is on us. We do this to highlight that students who don't take quizzes themselves (and most don't) tend to overestimate how well they mastered the class material. Why? When they listen to a lecture or read a text that exemplifies clarity, the ease with which they follow the argument gives them a sense that they already know it and don't need to learn it. In other words, they usually don't know what they don't know; When put to the test, they find that they cannot recall critical ideas or apply them in a new context.

Likewise, when they reread their lecture notes and texts to a fluent point, their fluency gives them a false sense of having the essential content, principles, and implications that constitute true learning. that they can summon them at any time. The result is that even the most diligent students are often hampered by two flaws: ignorance of the areas where their learning is poor - where they need to put more work into completing their knowledge - and a preference for learning methods that create a false sense of mastery. 11 Knowledge: Insufficient but Necessary Albert Einstein stated that “creativity is more important than knowledge,” a statement that appears to be widely shared by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 18 students, if their choices in T-shirt proclamations are any indication. And why shouldn't they take advantage of the atmosphere? It holds an obvious and profound truth, because without creativity, where would our scientific, social or economic breakthroughs come from? Furthermore, gathering knowledge can feel like a chore, while creativity seems a lot more fun.

But of course this dichotomy is false. You don't want to see this shirt on your neurosurgeon or the captain flying your plane across the Pacific Ocean. But the sentiment gained some traction as a reaction to standardized testing, fearing that such testing leads to an emphasis on rote learning at the expense of high-level skills. Regardless of the pitfalls of standardized testing, what we should really be asking is how we can better build knowledge and creativity, because without knowledge, there is no basis for superior skills in analysis, synthesis, and creative problem solving. As psychologist Robert Sternberg and two colleagues put it: "You can't put what you know into practice if you don't know something to apply." 12 Mastery in everything from cooking to chess to brain surgery is about the gradual accumulation of knowledge, conceptual understanding, judgment and skills. These are the fruits of diversity in practicing new skills, aspirations, reflection and mental testing. Remembering facts is like providing a building site with the necessary materials to build a house. Building a house requires not only knowledge of countless different pieces of equipment and materials, but also a conceptual understanding of aspects such as the load-bearing properties of the lintel or rafter system or the principles of energy transfer and conservation that will keep the house warm but the roof cold, so the owner doesn't call for six months about problems with the ice dam. Mastery requires both ready-made knowledge and a conceptual understanding of how it should be used.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Science is wrong ê 19 When Matt Brown had to decide whether or not to shut down the starboard engine, he solved a problem and had to remember the engine from flight procedures and tolerances for his plane to predict whether he would drop out of the air or be unable to direct to land. A prospective neurosurgeon in the first year of medical school must remember the entire nervous system, the entire skeletal system, the entire muscular system, the shoulder system. If he can't, he won't be a neurosurgeon. Her success will depend on diligence, of course, but also on finding learning strategies that enable her to learn the vast amount of material required in the limited hours available. Tests: Level meter and learning tool There are few surer ways to worry many students and teachers than by talking about tests. In particular, the growing emphasis on standardized assessment in recent years has made testing a lightning rod for frustration with meeting national education goals. Internet forums and news articles are flooded with readers who argue that the emphasis on testing promotes memorization at the expense of greater contextual understanding or creative ability; that tests create additional stress for students and provide a false measure of ability; and so on. But if we stop thinking of testing as a level indicator to measure learning—if we think of it as a recall exercise rather than "testing," we open ourselves up to another possibility: using testing as a tool for learning. One of the most striking research findings is that active search—testing—has the power to strengthen memory, and the more effort you put into searching, the greater the benefits. Think of a flight simulator and a lecture in PowerPoint. Think Quiz vs. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 20 rereading. The act of remembering learning has two profound benefits. First, it tells you what you know and what you don't know, and therefore where you need to focus further research to improve the areas where you are weak. Second, remembering what you've learned causes your brain to reconsolidate its memory, which strengthens its connections to what you already know and makes it easier to remember in the future. In effect, retrieval - testing - forgetting breaks down. Consider an eighth grade science class. In this classroom at a high school in Columbia, Illinois, the researchers arranged for some of the material covered in the course to be the subject of low-stakes (with feedback) quizzes at three points during the semester. Another part of the material was never questioned but studied three times as part of the review. In the test a month later, which material was best remembered? Students achieved an A average on the checked material and a C+ on the material that was not checked but reviewed. 13 In Matt Brown's case, even after ten years of piloting the same business jet, every six months his employer reinforces his mastery of a series of flight tests and simulations that require him to acquire the necessary information and maneuvers to stay behind the controls. of his plane. As Matt points out, emergencies rarely happen, so if you don't practice what to do, there's no way to stay sane. Both of these cases—classroom research and Matt Brown's experience keeping his knowledge up to date—point to the critical role search practices play in keeping our knowledge accessible when we need it. The power of active search is the subject of Chapter 2. 14 Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Science is misunderstood ê 21 Takeaway Most of the time we learn the wrong way and give bad advice to those who come after us. Much of what we think we know about how to learn is taken on faith and based on intuition, but does not stand up to empirical examination. Persistent illusions of knowledge lead us to work on unproductive strategies; as described in Chapter 3, this applies even to those who have participated in empirical research and seen the evidence for themselves. Illusions are powerful persuasions. One of the best habits a student can instill is to regularly ask themselves questions to recalibrate their understanding of what they know and what they don't know. 2nd Lt. Kiley Hunkler, a 2013 West Point graduate and Rhodes Scholar featured in Chapter 8, uses the phrase "shooting in azimuth" to describe how she approaches practice tests that help her focus on her studies . In land navigation, taking an azimuth means climbing in elevation, observing an object on the horizon in the direction you are moving, and adjusting your compass heading to ensure you continue to get closer to your destination over obstacles. the forest below. The good news is that we now know simple and practical strategies that anyone can use at any point in their lives to learn better and remember longer: different types of refresher exercises such as low-stakes quizzes and self-tests, split exercises, alternating exercises with different but related topics or skills, trying to solve a problem before learning a solution, distilling ground rules or rules that distinguish between types of problems, and so on. We describe them in detail in the following chapters. And because learning is an iterative process that requires you to look again at what you have, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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We have learned from before and are constantly updating and combining with new knowledge, we navigate these topics several times along the way. Finally, in Chapter 8, we pull it all together with specific tips and examples of how to use these tools.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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23 Mike Ebersol called the emergency room one afternoon in late 2011 to check on a deer hunter from Wisconsin who had been found unconscious in a cornfield. The man had blood on the back of his head and the people who found him and brought him in thought he might have tripped and cracked his skull on something. Ebersold is a neurosurgeon. The wound protruded from the brain, and he recognized it as a gunshot wound. The hunter regained consciousness in the emergency room, but when asked how he injured himself, he had no idea. Ebersold later recounted the incident: "Someone must have fired what looked like a 12-gauge shotgun from a distance, and it was a bow, God knows how far, hit this guy in the back of the head, cracked his skull. and lodged in the brain for about an inch. It must have been used quite a lot or it would have gone deeper. 1 2 Learn, Recover Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http ://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 24 Ebersold is tall, slender, and counts among his ancestors Dakota chiefs named Wapasha and French fur traders named Rocque, who inhabited the part of the Mississippi River valley where the Mayo brothers later established their famous clinic. Ebersold's formal education included four years of college, four years of medical school, and seven years of neurosurgical training—building a foundation of knowledge and skills that was broadened and deepened through continuing medical education, consultation with colleagues, and his practice at the Mayo Clinic and elsewhere.

He carries himself with a Midwestern modesty that belies a career that includes a long list of high-profile patients who have sought his services. When President Ronald Reagan needed treatment for his horse fall injuries, Ebersold participated in surgery and aftercare. When Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, President of the United Arab Emirates, needed a delicate repair to his spine, he and what appeared to be half of the national ministry and security forces settled in Rochester, while Mike Ebersold made the repairs and oversaw Zayed's recovery. After a long career at Mayo, Mike returned to assist at the Wisconsin Clinic and felt grateful for her early medical education. A hunter whose bad luck got in the way of a stray 12-gauge bullet was luckier than he thinks Mike was at work that day. The bullet entered the area of the skull that has a large venous sinus, a channel in the soft tissue that drains the brain cavity. Examining the hunter, Ebersold knew from experience that when he opened the wound, there was a good chance he would find a burst vein. As he described it, you say to yourself, “This patient needs surgery.

The brain comes out of the wound. We have to clean up. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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To figure it out, get the ê 25 back and fix it as best we can, but in doing that we could get into this big vein and it could be very, very serious." So you go through the checklist. You say , "I may need a blood transfusion for this patient," so you draw up some blood. You go through steps A, B, C, and D. You prepare the OR by telling them ahead of time what you might encounter. It's all kinds of protocol, almost like a cop getting ready to pull over a car, you know what the book says, you've gone through all these steps, then you end up in the operating room, and now you're still in the state where you have time to think. You say, "Oh man, I'm not going to just go and get the bullet out if there's a serious bleed. What I'll try to do is go around the edges and let things go so I'm ready for what could go wrong and then I'll pull it out. The bullet and bone turned out to be stuck in the vein and acted as plugs, another lucky turn for the hunter. If the wound had not been plugged in the field, he would not have survived more than two or three minutes. When Ebersold took the bullet out, the bone fragments fell off and the vein escaped in a stream. "You've lost two or more units of blood in five minutes, and now you're kind of coming out of that state where you're considering it, you're going through your options. Now it becomes reflexive, mechanical. You know it's coming to bleed very, very badly, so you have very little time.

You just think, "I have to suture around this structure, and I know from experience that I have to do it this way." The vein in question is the size of an adult little finger and was torn in several places over an inch and a half. It had to be tied above and below the crack, but it's a flat structure he knows well: Ty Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 26 cannot simply put a stick around it, because when it is tightened, the tissue tears and the ligature leaks. He worked diligently and mechanically, reverting to a technique he had developed out of necessity during previous operations on this oar. He cut out two small pieces of muscle from where the patient's skin had been opened during the operation and brought them back to the site and sewed the ends of the torn vein to them. These muscle injections served to close the vein without bending its natural shape and tearing the tissue. It's a solution that Mike learned on his own—one that you won't find anywhere, but at least it's useful for now. In about sixty seconds the patient lost another two hundred cubic centimeters of blood, but when the plugs were in place the bleeding stopped. "Some people can't tolerate this sinus vein being closed. They get increased pressure in the brain because the blood doesn't drain properly. But this patient was one of the lucky ones who can." The hunter left the hospital a week later. He was devoid of peripheral vision, but otherwise remarkably unscathed from a very close encounter with mortality. Reflection is a form of practice What can we learn from this story about how we learn and remember? In neurosurgery (and probably in all aspects of life from the moment you leave the womb) there is an important form of learning that comes from reflecting on personal experiences. Ebersold described it this way: Many times during surgery something would come up that I had difficulty with, and then I would go home that night and think about what had happened and what I could do, for example, to improve that way , it sewed on. How can I take a bigger needle bite or a smaller bite or should the stitches be closer together? What if I changed it somehow? Subsequently, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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To find out to get ê 27 back the next day I would try this and see if it works better. And even if it wasn't the next day, at least I thought about it, and in doing so I not only went back to things I learned from lectures or watching others perform surgery, but I also supplemented it by adding some of myself as I was missing in the teaching process.

Reflection can involve several cognitive activities that lead to stronger learning: retrieving knowledge and previous training from memory, connecting it to new experiences, and visualizing and mentally rehearsing what you might do differently next time. It was this kind of reflection that led Ebersold to try a new technique for repairing the sinus vein in the back of the head, a technique he practiced in his mind and in the operating room until it became something of a reflex. Exive A maneuver you can trust when your patient is gushing blood at two hundred cubic centimeters per minute. To ensure that new learning is available when needed, Ebersold notes, "you memorize a list of things to worry about in a given situation: steps A, B, C, and D" and practice them . Then there comes a time when you find yourself in a tense situation, and it is no longer about thinking through your next steps, but reflectively taking the right action. "If you don't remember this maneuver, it won't become a reflex. Like a racer in a tight spot or a quarterback avoiding a tackle, you have to act without thinking before you can think. Remind yourself over and over, practice over and over again and again. It's just very important. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty /detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make it Sticky ê 28 Effect of Test A child strung on a string of cranberries goes to hang it on a tree, only to find that it has slipped off the other end. You can't make a string without a knot. No knot, no necklace, no beaded handbag, no beautiful tapestry.

Fetch binds the node to memory. Several downloads match it and add a loop to speed it up. Since 1885, psychologists have drawn "forgetting curves" that illustrate how quickly our cranberries slip off the string. In a very short time, we lose about 70 percent of what we have just heard or read. After that, forgetting begins and the last 30 percent decays more or less slowly, but the lesson is clear: the main challenge to improving the way we learn is to find a way to interrupt the process. forget. 2 The power of search as a learning tool is known among psychologists as the test effect. In its most common form, tests are used to measure learning progress and give grades in school, but we have long known that the act of retrieving knowledge from memory makes that knowledge easier to remember in the future. In his essay on memory, Aristotle wrote: "Practice in recalling something again and again strengthens the memory." Francis Bacon wrote about this phenomenon, as did psychologist William James. Today, we know from empirical research that the search exercise makes learning much better than re-exposure to the original material. This is the test effect, also known as the recovery exercise effect. 3 To be most effective, recall must be repeated many times at intervals, so that recall, rather than becoming a mindless recitation, requires some cognitive effort. Repeated recall appears to help the memory consolidate into a coherent representation in the brain and reinforce, and Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learn, download ê 29 multiply neural routes that can be used to retrieve knowledge later. In recent decades, research has confirmed what Mike Ebersold and every seasoned quarterback, jet pilot, and teenage texter know from experience—that repeated retrieval can embed knowledge and skills so that they become reflective: the brain works before the mind can think. But despite what research and personal experience tell us about the power of testing as a learning tool, teachers and students in traditional learning environments rarely use it as such, and the technique is still little understood or used by teachers or students as a learning tool in traditional learning environments educational environments. Far away from here. In 2010, the New York Times reported on a research study that showed that students who read a passage of text and then took a test asking them to remember what they read remembered a staggering 50 percent more information a week later than students who has not been tested. That seems like good news, but that's how it was received in many Internet comments: "Once again, another author confuses learning with memorizing information." "Personally, I would like to avoid as many tests as possible, especially considering my grade. Trying to learn in a stressful environment will not help you remember information.” “No one should care whether or not memorization improves with practice tests. Our kids can't do anything anymore." 4 Forget rote learning, many commentators have argued; education should be about higher-order skills. hmmm. If memorization doesn't matter when solving complex problems, don't tell your Brown, Peter C. et al .Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 30 neurosurgeon. The frustration that many people feel with standard test strips conducted solely to measure learning is understandable, but it distracts us from appreciating one of the most powerful learning tools at our disposal. Comparing the learning of basic knowledge with the development of creative thinking is a wrong choice. Both must be cultivated. The stronger a person's knowledge of a subject, the more nuanced creativity can be in solving a new problem. Just as knowledge means little without ingenuity and imagination, creativity without a strong foundation in the form of knowledge builds a shaky house. Examining the effect of testing in the laboratory The effect of testing has a solid pedigree in empirical research.

The first large-scale study was published in 1917.

Children in grades 3, 5, 6 and 8 studied short biographies from Who's Who in America. Some of them were asked to spend varying amounts of time studying, looking up from the material and asking themselves what it contained.

Those who did not simply continued to reread the material. At the end of the activity, all children were asked to write down what they remembered. The memory test was repeated three to four hours later. All groups who engaged in recitation showed better memory than those who did not, but continued to review the material. The best results were obtained by those who spent about 60 percent of their study time reciting. The second groundbreaking study, published in 1939, looked at more than three thousand sixth graders across Iowa. The children studied six-hundred-word articles and then took tests at various times before the final exam two months later. The experiment yielded some interesting results: the longer the first test was delayed, the greater the forgetting, and second, once a student of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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To learn, recover ê 31, the test was solved, the forgetting almost stopped, and the student's score on subsequent tests decreased very little. 5 Around 1940, interest turned to the study of forgetting and explored the potential of testing as a form of recall practice and as a learning tool that had fallen out of favor. It was the same with the use of testing as a research tool: since testing interrupts forgetting, it cannot be used to measure forgetting because it "contaminates" the subject. Interest in the testing effect was revived in 1967 with the publication of a study showing that subjects presented with lists of thirty-six words learned as much from repeated tests after initial exposure to the words as from repeated studies. These findings—that testing led to learning as much as studying—challenged conventional wisdom, drew researchers' attention back to the potential of testing as a learning tool, and spurred a boom in testing research. In 1978, researchers discovered that massive learning (cramming) leads to better performance on a quick test, but results in faster forgetting compared to an information retrieval exercise. On the second test, two days after the first test, the crammers forgot 50 percent of what they could remember from the first test, while those who spent the same period practicing retrieval instead of studying forgot only 13 percent of the information they remembered initially. Another study aimed to understand the impact multiple testing would have on long-term retention. Students listened to a story in which 60 specific objects were mentioned. The students tested immediately after exposure remembered 53 percent of the items on this initial test, but only 39 percent a week later. On the other hand, a group of students who studied the same material but were not tested at all until a week later remembered 28 percent of the time. Thus, taking a single test increased performance by 11 percent after one week.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make it stick ê 32 But what effect would three instant tests have against one? Another group of students was tested three times after the first exposure, and a week later they were able to recall 53 percent of the items—the same as in the pretest of the group that received one test. As a result, the group that received three tests was "immunized" to forgetfulness compared to the one-test group, and the one-test group remembered more than those who received no test immediately after exposure. According to recent research, several sessions of recovery practice are generally better than one, especially if the test sessions are spread out over time. 6 In another study, researchers showed that simply asking a person to fill in the missing letters of a word resulted in better memory for that word. Consider a list of word pairs. In the case of a shoe-and-shoe pair, those who studied the pair intact had less subsequent memory than those who studied the pair based on a cue as distinct as the foot. This experiment was a demonstration of what scientists call the "generative effect." The modest effort required to generate a cue response while studying the pairs improved memory of the target word tested later (but).

Interestingly, this study found that the ability to recall a pair of words on later tests was greater if the repetition of the exercise was delayed by the twenty word pairs that occurred than when it happened immediately after the first study of the pair. 7 Why should it be?

One argument suggested that the greater effort required by delayed recall improved memory retention. Researchers have begun to question whether the testing plan matters. The answer is yes. When recall practice is staggered, allowing some forgetting between tests, it leads to stronger long-term retention than when it is random. Researchers began looking for ways to take their research beyond the lab and into the classroom, using materials that students are expected to learn in school.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning, Recovery 33 Examining the Effects of "Out of Field" Testing In 2005, my colleagues and I approached Roger Chamberlain, principal of a middle school in nearby Columbia, Illinois. The positive effects of retrieval practice have been demonstrated repeatedly under controlled laboratory conditions, but rarely in normal school settings.

Would the principal, teachers, children, and parents at Columbia Middle School be willing to participate in a study to see how the testing effect works "in the wild"? Chamberlain had concerns. If it was just about remembering, he wasn't very interested. His goal is to educate the school's students for higher forms of learning – analysis, synthesis and application, as he puts it. And he was concerned about his teachers, an energetic faculty with curricula and a variety of teaching methods that he did not want to disrupt. On the other hand, the results of the study could be informative, and class participation would bring the temptation of smartboards and "clickers"—automated response systems—to the participating teachers' classes. Money for new technologies is famous for its tightness. Sixth grade social studies teacher Patrice Bain was eager to try it. For the researchers, the opportunity to work in the classroom was compelling, and the school's terms were accepted: the study was intended to be minimally disruptive by fitting into existing curricula, lesson plans, test formats, and teaching methods. The same manuals would be used. The only difference in the classroom would be the introduction of occasional short quizzes. The course would last three semesters (year and a half) through several chapters of a social science textbook covering topics such as ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. The project started in 2006. It will turn out to be a good decision.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 34 For six social studies classes, research assistant Pooja Agarwal designed a series of quizzes that tested students on about a third of the material the teacher covered.

These quizzes were "no stakes", meaning scores do not count towards your grade. The teacher left the classroom for each test not knowing what material was being tested. One quiz was conducted at the beginning of class on material from the assigned readings that had not yet been discussed. The second was given at the end of the lesson, after the teacher had discussed the material for the day's lesson. Twenty-four hours before each unit exam, a revision quiz was administered. Concerns have been raised that if students did better on the final exam on material that was tested than on material that was not tested, it could be argued that the simple act of re-reading the material in the quizzes was responsible for better learning, and no recovery practice. To address this possibility, some unexplored material was mixed with quiz materials, yielding simple summary statements such as "The Nile has two main tributaries: the White Nile and the Blue Nile," without requiring a search. Fact-checked for some classes, but simply re-examined for others. The quizzes only took a few minutes of the classroom.

After the teacher left the room, Agarwal projected a series of slides on the board at the front of the room and read them to the students. Each slide represented a multiple-choice question or fact statement. When the slide contained a question, students used clickers (handheld, cell phone-like remote controls) to indicate their choice of answer: A, B, C, or D. When everyone answered, the correct answer was revealed to provide feedback and correct errors. (Although teachers were not present during these quizzes, under normal circumstances, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest .com /lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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To find out, restore ê 35 with teachers conducting quizzes, they would immediately see how well students are following the study material and use the results to guide further discussion or inquiry). teacher. Examinations were also held at the end of the semester and at the end of the year. Students were exposed to all the material tested in these exams during normal teacher hours, homework, worksheets, etc., but they were also interviewed three times for one-third of the material and then another third of the material. three times presented for further research. The balance of the material was neither checked nor checked in class beyond the introductory lesson and what the reading student could do. The results were convincing: the children scored a full grade higher on the material that was tested than on the material that was not tested. Furthermore, test scores for material that was peer-reviewed as a statement of fact but not questioned were no better than scores for non-peer-reviewed material. Again, just rereading doesn't help much. In 2007, the research expanded to eighth-grade science classes to include genetics, evolution, and anatomy. The scheme was the same and the results were just as impressive. At the end of three semesters, eighth graders scored an average of 79 percent (C+) on the non-tested material, compared to 92 percent (A−) on the material that was tested.

The test effect continued eight months later on year-end exams, confirming what many laboratory studies have shown about the long-term benefits of retrieving practice. The effect would undoubtedly be greater if mining continued and took place once a month, e.g. in consecutive months. 8 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 36 The lessons of this research have been taken to heart by many teachers at Columbia Middle School. Long after his participation in scientific research ended, Patrice Bain's sixth-grade social studies program continues with a schedule of preschool quizzes, after-school quizzes, and then a review quiz before the chapter test. Jon Wehrenberg, an eighth-grade history teacher who was not involved in the research, has incorporated inquiry practice into his classroom in many different forms, including quizzes, and provides additional online tools on his website, such as flashcards and games.

For example, after reading passages about the history of slavery, his students are asked to write down ten facts about slavery that they did not know before reading the passages. You don't need electronic gadgets to practice fetching. Seven sixth- and seventh-graders who needed to improve their reading and comprehension skills sat in Michelle Spivey's English class recently with their books open for a fun story. Each student was asked to read a paragraph aloud. When the student stumbled, Miss Spivey told him to try again. When he got it right, she probed the class to explain the meaning of the passage and what might have been going on in the characters' minds. research and development; again no technology needed. Quizzes at Columbia Middle School are not arduous events.

After the survey was completed, a survey of the students' opinion on the topic was conducted. 64 percent said the quizzes reduced their anxiety about unit exams and 89 percent said it sped up the learning process. Children expressed disappointment on days when clickers were not used, as the activity interrupted the teacher's lecture and was found to be entertaining. When asked what he thought the results of the study indicated, Director Chamberlain simply replied, "The practice of searching has a significant impact on children's learning. This tells us that Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning, recovering ê 37 is valuable, and it is good for teachers to incorporate it into their teaching techniques." 9 Are similar effects seen later in life? Andrew Sobel teaches international political economy at Washington University in St. Louis with 160-170 students, mostly freshmen and sophomores. For several years, he had noticed a growing attendance problem. On any given day in the middle of the semester, 25-35 percent of classes would be absent, compared to earlier in the semester when perhaps 10 percent would be absent.

He says the problem wasn't just his class. Many professors give students PowerPoint slides so that students simply stop coming to class. Sobel fought back by pausing his slides, but by the end of the semester, many students had stopped showing up anyway. The curriculum included two major tests, mid-semester and final. Looking for a way to increase attendance, Sobel replaced the big tests with nine pop quizzes. As the quizzes would determine the grade of the course and would be unannounced, it is recommended that students attend class. The results were disturbing. Within a semester, a third or more of the students dropped out. "I was really hammered by the teacher reviews," Sobel told us. "The kids hated it. If they didn't do well on the quiz, they dropped out of the course instead of getting a bad grade. Of those who stayed, I noticed a divide between those who actually showed up and did the work , and those who didn't. I've found myself giving away A's I've never given before, and more A's than I've ever given." 10 With so many objections, he had no choice but to abandon the experiment and return to the old format, lectures with a semester and a final exam. But a few years later, after hearing Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 38 in a presentation on the benefits of testing in learning added a third major test during the semester to see what impact it could have on student learning. They did better, but not as much as he expected, and attendance problems continued. He scratched his head and changed the syllabus again.

This time he announced that there would be nine colloquiums during the semester and clearly specified when they would take place. No surprises, no midterms or final exams because he didn't want to spend so much of his class time. Despite fears that enrollment will fall again, it has actually increased by a handful. "Unlike pop quizzes, which kids hate, these were all on the syllabus. If they missed one, it was their fault. Not because I surprised them or was mortal. They were fine with it." Sobel also observed with satisfaction the improvement in attendance. "They missed some classes on days when they didn't have a quiz, especially in the summer term, but showed up for quizzes." As with the course, the quizzes were cumulative and questions similar to those of the exams he used to give, but the quality of the answers he got at midterms was much better than he was used to seeing at midterms. conditions. Five years in this new format, it's sold on it. “The quality of class discussions has increased significantly. I can see a big difference in their written work going from three exams to nine quizzes." At the end of the semester, he has them write paragraphs on topics discussed in class, sometimes a full-page essay, and the quality is comparable to what he sees in his upperclassmen. "Anyone can design this structure. But I also realize that, oh God, if I had done this years ago, I would have taught them so much more. The interesting thing about adopting this strategy is that I now realize that a good teacher like I Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning, recovering—he might think that, well, my teaching is just part of their learning, and the way I organize it has a lot to do with it, maybe even more.” Meanwhile, enrollment in the course increased to 185 and continues to grow. Discovering the Nuances Andy Sobel's example is anecdotal and likely reflects many beneficial influences, including the cumulative learning outcomes that build as compound interest as course material is fed through the quiz system throughout the semester. Nevertheless, his experience coincides with empirical research aimed at extracting the effects and nuances of testing. In one experiment, for example, college students studied prose passages on a variety of science topics, such as those taught in college, and then either took an immediate memory test after initial exposure or re-studied the material. After a two-day delay, students who took the pretest remembered more material than those who simply re-studied it (68 vs. 54 percent), and this advantage was maintained a week later (56 vs. 42 percent). . In another experiment, it was found that after one week the test group showed the most forgetfulness of what they could initially remember, forgetting 52 percent, compared to the repeated test group, who only forgot 10 percent. 11 How does giving feedback on wrong answers to test questions affect learning? Research shows that giving feedback increases retention more than testing alone, and interestingly, some evidence shows that a short delay in feedback produces better long-term learning than immediate feedback. This finding is counterintuitive, but it is consistent with research by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick - 40 discoveries about how we learn motor tasks such as throwing or guiding a golf ball toward a distant green. In motor learning, trial and error with delayed feedback is a more awkward but effective way of acquiring skills than trial and error through immediate feedback; Instant feedback is like training wheels on a bicycle: the learner quickly comes to rely on the constant presence of correction. In the case of motor learning, one theory is that immediate feedback becomes part of the task, so that later, under real conditions, its absence becomes a gap in the established pattern that disrupts per mance.

Another concept is that frequent pauses for feedback make learning sessions too fleeting, making it impossible to establish a stabilized pattern of performance. 12 In the classroom, delayed feedback also produces better long-term learning than immediate feedback. For students studying science-themed prose passages, some were shown the passage again even when asked to answer questions about it, effectively giving them continuous feedback during the test, analogous to an open-book exam. The other group took the test with no research material at hand and only then received the excerpt and were asked to review their answers. Of course, the open-book group did best in the immediate test, but those who received corrective feedback at the end of the test retained their knowledge better in the later test. Delayed feedback on written tests can be useful as it gives the student staggered practice; as discussed in the next section, distance practice improves retention. 13 Are some types of booster exercises more effective for long-term learning than others? Tests that require a student Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Learning, download ê 41 response, such as an essay or short answer test, or simply a flashcard exercise, appears to be more effective than simple recognition tests such as multiple choice or true/false.

But even multiple-choice tests like those used at Columbia Middle School can be of great benefit. While any kind of recall practice generally benefits learning, the implication seems to be that where more cognitive effort is required to remember, memorization scores are greater. The practice of applying has been extensively studied in recent years, and analysis of these studies shows that even a single test in the classroom can result in significant improvements in final exam results, with learning progress increasing steadily as the number of tests increases. 14 Whatever scientific theories ultimately tell us are correct about how repeated recall strengthens memory, empirical research shows that the test effect is real—that the act of recalling a memory changes the memory, making it easier to recall later .

How widely is search practice used as a research technique? In one study, students were largely unaware of its effectiveness. In another study, only 11 percent of students said they use this learning strategy. Even when they self-reported the tests, they mostly said they did it to discover what they didn't know so they could study the material more closely.

This is a perfectly legitimate use of testing, but few students realize that search alone causes more retention. 15 Is repeated testing just a way to speed up rote learning? In fact, research indicates that testing, compared to rereading, can facilitate better transfer of knowledge to new contexts and problems and improves recall and recall. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 42 download material related but not tested. More research is needed on this issue, but it appears that search practices can make information more accessible when needed in different contexts.

Do students resist testing as a learning tool? Students generally dislike tests, and it's not hard to see why, especially with high-stakes tests like midterms and finals where the outcome has serious consequences.

However, in all testing studies that looked at student attitudes, students who were tested more often rated their activities at the end of the semester better than those who tested less often. Those who were checked frequently commuted overweight by the end of the semester and did not need to cram for exams.

How does taking the test affect later learning? After the test, students spend more time revisiting the material they missed and learn more from it than their peers who revisited the material without checking. Students whose learning strategies emphasize rereading but not self-testing show overconfidence. Students who have been interviewed have a twofold advantage over those who have not: a more accurate sense of what they know and don't know, and the reinforcement of learning that comes from the practice of searching. 16 Are there additional indirect benefits to low-stakes common classroom tests? In addition to improving learning and memory, a system of this type of testing improves student participation. Increasing study before class (as students Brown, Peter C., and others Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail . action?docID=3301452.

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Learn, download - know they will be tested), increases classroom attention if students are tested at the end of class and allows students to better calibrate what they know and what they need to improve. It is the antidote to confusing text skills that come from repeated reading, with mastery of the subject.

Frequent, low-stakes tests help reduce test anxiety among students by varying the consequences across a much larger sample: no single test is the deciding factor. This type of testing allows instructors to identify gaps in student understanding and adapt their instructions to fill them.

These benefits of low-stakes testing come whether the instruction is online or in the classroom. 17 Takeaway The practice of recalling new knowledge or skills from memory is a powerful tool for learning and remembering it permanently. This includes everything the brain needs to remember and remember in the future - facts, complex concepts, problem solving techniques, fine motor skills. Strenuous search results in stronger learning and memory. We are easily seduced into thinking that science is better when it is easier, but research shows the opposite: when the mind has to work, science holds up better. The more effort you put into retrieving knowledge, assuming it is successful, the more learning will be enhanced by retrieving. After the initial test, delaying subsequent restoration practice is more effective in improving retention than immediate practice because delayed restoration requires more effort. Repeated retrieval not only makes memories more permanent, but also creates knowledge that can be more easily retrieved in more varied settings and applied to a wider range of problems.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Let it stick ê 44 While cramming may produce better results on the Swift exam, the advantage disappears quickly because there is much more forgetting after rereading than after retrieval.

The benefits of recovery practices are long-term. Simply incorporating one test (recall exercise) into a class results in significant improvements in final exam scores, with gains increasing as classroom testing frequency increases. The test does not have to be initiated by the instructor. Students can practice fetching anywhere; no classroom quizzes are necessary. Think flashcards—the way second graders learn the multiplication table could work just as well for students of all ages, who might be taking quizzes on anatomy, math, or law. Self-testing can be unattractive because it requires more effort than rereading, but as mentioned, the more effort you put into searching, the more will be remembered. Students who take practice tests have a better idea of their progress than those who simply reread the material. Likewise, such testing enables the instructor to detect gaps and misunderstandings and adjust the instructions to correct them. Providing students with corrective feedback after tests protects them from misremembering material they misunderstand and enables them to better learn the correct answers. Students in classes that include low-stakes quizzes are beginning to adopt this practice. Students who are tested often rate their classes better.

What about Principal Roger Chamberlain's initial fears about Columbia Middle School's quiz check — that it might be nothing more than a brilliant avenue for rote learning? When we asked him this question after the survey, he paused for a moment to collect his thoughts. "What Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID= 3301452.

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Learn, Recover ê 45 This really made me feel good: If children can evaluate, synthesize and apply concepts in different situations, they will be much more successful in getting there when they have a knowledge base and memory so they don't waste time trying to go back and figure out what the word might mean or what the concept was about. It takes them to the next level.” Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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46 I may not believe that recall practice is a more powerful learning strategy than repeated review and rereading, but most of us take for granted the importance of testing in sports. This is what we call "practice - practice - practice". Here's a study that might surprise you.

A group of eight-year-olds practiced throwing beanbags into buckets in PE class. Half of the children were thrown into a bucket three meters away. The second half mixed it up, dropping two meters into buckets and four meters away. After twelve weeks they were all subjected to the test of being thrown into a three foot bucket. The kids who have done the best so far are the ones who practiced on two-foot and four-foot buckets, but never on three-foot buckets. 1 Why is that? We return to beanbags, but first a little insight into a widespread myth about how we learn. 3 Mix up your practice Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Mix up your practice ê 47 Group Practice Myth Most of us believe that learning is better when you do something with one goal in mind: practice, practice, practice to burn the skill into memory. The belief in focused, repetitive practice of one thing at a time until you reach your goal is ubiquitous among teachers, athletes, occupational trainers and students. Scientists call this kind of practice "massive," and our belief rests largely on the simple fact that when we do it, we see it make a difference. Nevertheless, contrary to what our eyes tell us, this belief is wrong. If learning can be defined as the acquisition of new knowledge or skills and the ability to apply them later, then how quickly you assimilate something is only part of the story. Is it still available when you need to use it in everyday life? While practice is essential to learning and memory, research has shown that practice is much more effective when broken down into separate practice periods that are spaced apart. The quick benefits of mass exercise are often obvious, but there is no quick forgetting. Practice that is spread out, mixed with other learning methods, and varied provides better mastery, longer retention, and greater versatility. But these benefits come at a price: when practice is spread out, mixed and varied, it takes more effort. You feel the increased effort, but you don't feel the benefits that this effort brings. Learning seems slower with this type of practice, and you don't get the quick upgrades and confirmations you're used to with massive practice. Even in studies where participants showed better academic performance over time, they see no improvement; they believe they learned better from the material where the practice was massive.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 48 Almost everywhere you look, you'll find examples of mass practice: summer language camps, single-subject schools with the promise of rapid learning, continuing education seminars for professionals where training is compressed into a weekend. Cramming for exams is a form of collective practice. It seems like an effective strategy and can get you through another midterm day, but most of the material will be forgotten by the time you sit down for finals. Going away from practice feels less productive for the same reason that you've started to forget a bit and you have to work harder to remember the concepts. You don't feel like you're on top. You do not currently feel that this extra effort makes the learning stronger. 2 Interval practice The benefits of separating practice sessions have long been known, but a vivid example is a study of 38 surgical residents. They attended a series of four short microsurgery lessons: how to reconnect small vessels. Each lesson consisted of part instruction followed by part practice. Half of the doctors completed all four lessons in one day, which is the normal shift schedule. The others completed the same four lessons, but with a week's break in between. 3 In a test conducted one month after the last session, those whose lessons took place one week apart outperformed their peers in all areas - time to complete the operation, number of hand movements and suturing success - red, throbbing live rats on the aorta. The difference in performance between the two groups was impressive. Residents who had all four sessions in one day not only scored lower on all measures, but 16 percent of them hurt Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Confuse your practice ê 49 rat vessels beyond repair and were unable to complete their operations. Why is interval training more effective than mass training?

Embedding new knowledge into long-term memory appears to require a consolidation process in which memory traces (brain representations of new knowledge) are strengthened, made meaningful, and combined with prior knowledge—a process that develops over hours and can last for days.

Rapid practice is based on short-term memory. However, continuous learning requires time for mental rehearsal and other consolidation processes. That's why interval training works better. The increased effort required to retrieve knowledge after briefly forgetting it results in resuming consolidation and further strengthening memory. In the next chapter we will look at some of the theories about this process. Interleaved practice Interleaving the practice of two or more subjects or skills is also a stronger alternative to collective practice, and here is a short example of this. Two groups of students were taught how to find the volume of four obscure geometric solids (wedge, spheroid, spherical cone, and semi-conic). One group then worked on a set of practice exercises grouped by problem type (practiced four wedge volume problems, then four spheroid problems, etc.). The second group worked on the same practice problems, but the sequence was shuffled (interleaved) instead of grouped by problem type. Considering what we have already presented, the results may not surprise you. During the exercises, students who solved problems in groups (that is, en masse) had an average of 89 percent correct answers, compared to only 60 percent of students who solved problems in mixed order. But in Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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On the Make It Stick ê 50 final exam a week later, students who practiced solving problems grouped by type scored only 20 percent correct on average, while students who practiced interlaced scored an average of 63 percent. The mix of problem types, which raised the final test score per person by a remarkable 215 percent, actually made it more difficult to achieve during the initial study. 4 Now suppose you are a trainer in a company trying to teach employees a new, complex process involving ten procedures. The typical way to do this is to train in procedure 1, repeating it many times until the participants think everything is cold. Then you go to procedure 2, do many repetitions 2, write it down and so on. This seems to cause rapid learning. What would an intertwined practice look like? Practice routine 1 a few times, then go to routine 4, then go to routine 3, then to routine 7, and so on. (Chapter 8 is about how Farmers Insurance trains new agents in a spiraling series of exercises that return to key skills in seemingly random order, adding layers of context and meaning each time.) than learning from mass practice. Teachers and students feel the difference. They see that their understanding of each element is coming more slowly, and the compensating long-term benefit is not obvious to them. As a result, interleaving is unpopular and rarely used. Teachers don't like him because he seems slow. Students find this confusing: they are just beginning to master new material and do not yet feel at their peak when forced to change. But research shows unequivocally that mastery and long-term retention are much better if practice is blended rather than massive.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Variety in practice ê 51 Variety of practice Ok, how about the bean bag studio where the best performers never practiced the long shot that the other kids only practiced? The bean bag study focused on mastering fine motor skills, but showed that the underlying principle also applies to cognitive learning. The basic idea is that varying practice—for example, throwing beanbags into baskets from different distances—improves the ability to transfer knowledge from one situation and apply it effectively to another. You develop a broader understanding of the relationship between different relationships and the movements required to succeed in them; you understand context better and develop a more flexible "movement vocabulary" - different movements in different situations. Whether the extent of alternating training (eg, 2-foot and 4-foot throws) should include a specific task (3-foot throw) is the subject of further research. The evidence for alternating training has been supported by recent neuroimaging studies that suggest that different types of training involve different parts of the brain. Learning fine motor skills through a series of exercises that are more cognitively demanding than bulk exercises appears to be consolidated in the area of the brain associated with the more difficult learning of higher-order motor skills. On the other hand, learning motor skills through mass practice appears to be consolidated in another area of the brain that is used to learn cognitively simpler and less demanding motor skills. The conclusion is that learning achieved through a less demanding, massed form of practice is encoded in a simpler or relatively impoverished representation than learning achieved through varied and more demanding practice Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 52, which requires more brainpower and encodes learning into a more flexible representation that can be used more widely. 5 Among athletes, mass training has long been the rule:

throw a hook, putt a 20-foot putt, make a backhand return, throw a pass while rolling: over and over to get it right and train your "muscle memory." At least that's the concept. The benefits of alternating training in motor learning are gaining wider acceptance, albeit slowly. Consider a one-touch pass in hockey. There, you receive the puck and immediately pass it to your teammate, who moves around the ice, throwing his opponent off balance and unable to put pressure on the puck holder. Jamie Kompon, when he was an assistant coach for the Los Angeles Kings, used to coach teams on one-touch passes from the same position on the court. Although this move is actually interspersed with a sequence of other moves, if you only do it in the same spot on the court or in the same sequence of moves, you're just throwing the beanbags in threes... a bucket at your feet. Kompon noticed the difference and changed his exercises. Since we spoke, he's gone to the Chicago Blackhawks. We'd say here, "Watch those Blackhawks," but as we shift to production, Kompon and the team have already won the Stanley Cup.

Maybe it's not a coincidence? The benefits of alternating practice for cognitive learning as opposed to fine motor learning were shown in a recent experiment that adapted the beanbag test to verbal learning: in this case, students solved anagrams—that is, rearranged letters to form words (tpower becomes comet). Some subjects practiced the same anagram over and over, while others practiced multiple anagrams of the word. When all were tested on the same anagram that the previous group had practiced, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Mix Up Your Practice ê 53 the latter group fared better! Whether you're practicing recognizing tree species, distinguishing between the rules of law or mastering a new computer program, you'll get the same benefits. 6 Developing Discrimination Skills Compared to mass practice, an important advantage of interweaving and variation is that they help us better learn to assess context and distinguish problems, choose and apply the right solution from a range of options.

In mathematics education, massage is embedded in the textbook: each chapter is dedicated to a specific type of problem that you study in class, then practice by working, for example, twenty examples as homework before moving on. The next chapter deals with a different kind of problem, and you immerse yourself in the same kind of focused study and practice of that solution.

March, chapter by chapter, throughout the semester. But then, on the final exam, it turns out that all the problems are mixed up: you look at each one in turn and ask yourself, what algorithm am I using? Was it in chapter 5, 6 or 7? When you studied in bulk or blocked reps, you had no practice in this critical sorting process.

But that's how life usually goes: problems and opportunities arise in us in unpredictable ways, out of sequence. For our knowledge to be of practical value, we must be adept at recognizing "What is the problem?" so that we can choose and apply the appropriate solution. Several studies have shown improved discrimination skills that can be achieved through interleaved and varied practice. One study involved learning to attribute paintings to the artists who created them, and another focused on learning to recognize and classify birds.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 54 Researchers initially predicted that mass practice in identifying painters' work (ie, studying many examples of one painter's work before moving on to study many examples of another painter's work) would best help students learn the definition of each artist's style characteristic. Collective practice of each artist's work, one artist at a time, would better enable students to match artworks with artists later, compared to intermingled exposure to works by different artists. The idea was that interlacing would be too difficult and confusing; students would never be able to find the right dimensions. The scientists were wrong. The similarities between the works of one painter, which the students learned through collective practice, proved less useful than the differences between the works of many painters, which the students learned through interweaving. Interleaving allowed better discrimination and gave better results in a later test that required matching works to their painters. The crossover group was also able to better match painters' names to new examples of their work that the group had never seen in the learning phase. Despite these results, the students who participated in these experiments still preferred mass exercises, convinced that it served them better. Even after they took the test and were able to realize for themselves that interlacing was a better learning strategy, they held on to the belief that it was better to focus on looking at an artist's paintings. Mass practice myths are hard to debunk, even if you experience the evidence yourself. 7 The effect of interlacing practice in improving discrimination has again been confirmed in studies of humans learning to classify birds. The challenge here is more complex than you might think. One study looked at twenty different families of birds (hammerheads, swallows, wrens, finches, etc.). In each family, students were introduced to a dozen species Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Mix Up Your Practice ê 55 (brown thrasher, curved thrasher, Bendire's thrasher, etc.). To identify a bird's family, you consider a wide range of characteristics such as size, plumage, behavior, location, beak shape, iris color, and so on. The problem with bird identification is that family members share many, but not all, characteristics. For example, many thrashers, but not all, have a long, slightly curved bill. There are family characteristics, but none are found in all members of the family and cannot be used as unique identifiers. Since classification rules can only be based on these characteristics and not on defining characteristics (those that apply to each member), classifying birds is a matter of learning concepts and making judgments, not just memorizing characteristics. The interwoven and shifting practice has been shown to be more useful than mass practice in learning the basic concepts that unite and separate species and families. To paraphrase a finding from one of these studies, recall and recognition require "factual knowledge", which is considered a lower level of learning than "conceptual knowledge". Conceptual knowledge requires an understanding of the interrelationships between the basic elements within a larger structure that enables them to function together. Conceptual knowledge is necessary for classification. Following this logic, some people argue that the practice of finding facts and examples would not be a strategy for understanding the general characteristics required for higher levels of intellectual behavior.

Bird classification research suggests the opposite: learning strategies that help learners identify and perceive complex prototypes (family resemblances) can help them understand the types of contextual and functional differences that go beyond the acquisition of simple forms of knowledge and reach into a higher framework of understanding. . 8 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 56 Improving Medical Students' Complex Skills The difference between simple knowledge of facts and deeper learning that allows for flexible use of that knowledge may be a bit vague, but it resonates with Douglas Larsen of Washington University Medical School in St. . Louis, who says the skills required to classify birds are similar to the skills required of a doctor diagnosing what ails a patient. "The reason diversity is important is because it helps us see more nuance in things we can compare ourselves to," he says. "It comes up a lot in medicine in the sense that every patient visit is a test. There are many layers of explicit and implicit memory involved in the ability to distinguish between symptoms and how they relate to each other." Implicit memory is your automatic retrieval of past experiences in the interpretation of a new one. For example, a patient comes in and tells a story. When you listen, you consciously scan your mental library to see what fits, while unconsciously analyzing your past experiences to help interpret what the patient is telling you. "Then you have to make an assessment," says Larsen. 9 Larsen is a pediatric neurologist at a university clinic and hospital. He is a busy man: in addition to his medical practice, he supervises the work of interns, teaches and, if possible, conducts research in medical education, in collaboration with cognitive psychologists .It builds on all of these roles to redesign and strengthen the school's pediatric neuroscience training program.As you might expect, the medical school employs a broad spectrum of instructional techniques. In addition to lectures in Brown's classroom, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Mix Up Your Practice ê 57 and laboratories, students practice resuscitation and other procedures on advanced mannequins at the school's three simulation centers. Each "patient" is connected to monitors, has a heartbeat, blood pressure, dilating and constricting pupils, and the ability to listen and speak thanks to a controller that sees and operates a mannequin from the back room. The school also uses "standardized patients," actors who follow scenarios and display symptoms that students must diagnose. The center is organized like a general medical clinic and students must demonstrate skills in all aspects of patient contact, from bedside manners, physical examination skills and remembering to ask a full range of relevant questions to make a diagnosis and treatment plan. From researching these teaching methods, Larsen drew some interesting conclusions. First, and this may seem obvious: you will perform better on a test to demonstrate your competence in admitting patients in a clinic if your study experience involved admitting patients in a clinic. Just reading about patients is not enough. However, medical students who examined patients did just as well on written final exams as those who learned through written tests. This is because in the written test the student gets a significant structure and is asked to provide concrete information. When examining a patient, you must independently come up with the appropriate mental model and steps to follow. Practicing these steps on patients or simulated patients is better than just reading about how to do it. In other words, the most effective recall practice is one that reflects what you will do with that knowledge later. Not only what you know, but also how you practice what you know determines how well science will serve you later. As the sports saying goes, “Practice while you play and you will play Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest .com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 58 that you practice on. This conclusion is consistent with other learning research as well as with some of the more sophisticated training practices in science and industry, including the increasing use of simulators—not only for jet pilots and medical students, but also for officers, tugboat pilots, and people from almost every field, you can name which require the mastery of complex knowledge and skills and where there is a lot of effort to get it right. In such cases it is not enough to learn from books; real hands-on practice is necessary. Second, while it is important for the medical student to broaden their horizons by seeing a wide range of patients manifesting a variety of diseases, there is a risk of placing too much emphasis on diversity underemphasizing repetitive healing methods based on the typical course of disease. appears in most patients. "There is a specific set of diseases that we would like you to know very well," says Larsen. "So we're going to have to see these standardized patients over and over again and evaluate your results until you really take it down and you're able to show us, 'I'm really doing it right.'" It's not either/or , variation versus repetition.

We need to make sure we are properly balanced and also realize that sometimes we fall into the trap of intimacy.

"I've already seen many patients with this problem, I don't have to visit them all the time." But in fact, repeated retrieval practice is essential to long-term retention and is a critical aspect of training." The third critical aspect is hands-on experience. For the physician, admitting patients is a natural cycle of practice of searching, interweaving, and varying at intervals. "So much of medicine is based on experiential learning, so after the first two years we take students out of the classroom and start placing them in a clinical setting. The big question is what is Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

(Video) How to Write an Article Review l What Is an Article Review l Steps for Writing an Article Review

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Mix your practice ê 59 is it about combining science and experience? We have many experiences from which we do not draw conclusions. What characterizes those who teach us something?” One form of practice that helps us learn from experience, as described by neurosurgeon Mike Ebersold in Chapter 2, is reflection. Some people are more reflective than others, so Doug Larsen expanded his research to explore how reflection could be structured as an integral part of training and help students cultivate it as a habit. He experiments with requiring students to write daily or weekly summaries of what they did, how it worked, and what they could have done differently next time to get better results. He speculates that daily reflection, as a form of staggered information-seeking practice, is probably as important to the real-world application of medicine as quizzes and tests are to skill-building in medical school. What about a classroom lecture or a typical multi-day training conference?

Larsen estimates that interns at his school spend 10 percent of their time sitting at conferences and listening to lectures. It can be a conversation about metabolic diseases, about different infectious diseases or about different medicines. The speaker starts a PowerPoint slide show and starts watching it. It is usually lunch time and the doctors eat, listen and leave. “In my opinion, given how often forgetting occurs, it is very disappointing that we are putting so many resources into an activity that, according to learning research, is so effective in its current form. Medical students and residents go to these conferences and have no re-contact with them. It is only a matter of chance whether in the future they find a patient whose problem relates to the topic of the conference. Otherwise, they do not study Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 60, they are definitely not tested on the material, they just listen and then go." Larsen would like to at least see something done to stop forgetting: Take a quiz at the end of conference and follow up with doing recovery exercises at intervals.“Make quizzes a standard part of your culture and curriculum. You just know that every week you will receive ten questions in your email for you to work through. He asks: "How do we design education systems that prevent or at least intervene in the amount of forgetting that happens and ensure that they are systematic across the school to support what we're trying to achieve? Right now residency programs just dictate: you have to have a curriculum, you have to have conferences, and that's it. They hold these big conferences, invite all the speakers and give speeches. And at the end of the day, what we actually accomplish is really minimal." 10 These Principles Have Broad Applications College football may seem like an inappropriate place to look for a learning model, but a conversation with coach Vince Dooley about the University of Georgia's training regimen makes for an intriguing case. Dooley is authoritative on the matter. As head coach of the Bulldogs football team from 1964 to 1988, he had an astounding 201 wins with only 77 losses and 10 ties, winning six conference titles and a national championship. He then became the university's athletic director, where he created one of the most impressive track and field programs in the country. We asked Coach Dooley how players manage to master all the intricacies of the game. His coaching theories and Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Mix up your training ê 61 training sessions revolve around a weekly cycle of one Saturday game to another. A lot can be learned in this short amount of time: study the opponent's game in the classroom, discuss offensive and defensive counter strategies, take the discussion to the playing field, break the strategies down into positional moves and try them out, put the pieces together and then repeat the moves until they will run as one clockwork. While all this is happening, players must also keep their basic skills in top shape: blocking, tackling, catching the ball, throwing in, handling the ball. Dooley believes that (1) you need to practice the basics from time to time so keep it sharp or you're cooked, but (2) you need to change it into practice because too much repetition is boring. Position coaches work individually with players on specific skills and then how to play their positions during team practice. What else? There is an exercise in the kicking game. It is a matter of mastering the manual of each player. There are also special plays from the team's repertoire which often decide victory or defeat. In Dooley's narrative, the particular arts are examples of spatial teaching: they are practiced only on Thursdays, so there is always a week between sessions, and the pieces are played in a different order. With all this to do, it's not surprising that a critical aspect of team success is a very specific daily and weekly schedule that alternates between individual and team training elements. The start of each training day is strictly focused on the fundamentals of each player's position. The players then practice in small groups and work on maneuvers that span multiple positions. These parts gradually come together and lead Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 62 as a band. The game is sped up and slowed down, practiced both mentally and physically. In the middle of the week, the team runs games in real time, at full speed. "You work fast and you have to react fast," Dooley said. "But as you get closer to game time, you slow it down again. Now it's kind of a test without physical contact. The game starts pretty much the same every time, but then it changes what the opponent does. So you have to be able to adapt to that . You start a move and say, "If they react like that, this is what you would do." You practice adaptation. If you do it enough times in different situations, you'll be able to do it pretty well in any situation on the pitch." How does a player get to the top of their playbook? He takes it home and goes over the art in his mind. He can go through it. In practice, everything can't be physically strenuous, Dooley said, or you'd get tired, "so if the art requires you to take a step this way and then the other way, you can rehearse it in your mind, maybe just bend your body if you want to go that way. And if something happens and you have to adapt, you can do it mentally. By reading the manual, playing it in your mind, maybe taking a step or two to go through it, simulating you that there's something going on. So that kind of experiment is added to what you get in the classroom and on the field." The final meetings of the quarterbacks are held on Saturday morning, where the game plan is discussed and analyzed in mind.

Offensive coaches can lay out all the plans for a hypothetical game, but once the game starts, the execution rests in the hands of the quarterback. Everything is available to Coach Dooley's team: search, spacing, interweaving, variation, reflection and elaboration. Veteran Quarterback Before Saturday's Game - Mentally Exhausted - Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Blending your practice—reviewing plays, reactions, adjustments—is doing the same thing as an experienced neurosurgeon practicing what's about to happen in the operating room. Here is a quick overview of what we know today about mass practices and their alternatives. Scientists will continue to advance our knowledge. We firmly believe that we learn better through single-minded focus and sustained repetition, and these beliefs are repeatedly confirmed by the visible improvement that occurs during "practice - practice - practice". But scientists call this increased strength in the skill phase "instant strength" and distinguish it from "hidden habit strength." The same techniques that build habit strength, such as spacing, interweaving and variations, slow apparent assimilation and fail to enhance the practice that helps motivate and reinforce our efforts. Cramming, a form of collective practice, has been compared to binge eating. Many go in, but most of them come back in no time. The simple act of staggering learning and practice and allowing time to pass between them improves both learning and memory, ultimately building habit strength. How far apart, you ask? The simple answer is that the exercise does not become mindless repetition. At least enough time to forget a little. A little forgetting between practice sessions can be a good thing if it leads to more practice effort, but you don't want to forget so much that recall is essentially relearning the material. Breaks between training sessions allow memories to be consolidated. Sleep appears to play a major role in Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 64 memory consolidation, so practice with at least one day between sessions is good. Something as simple as a deck of cards can be an example of a hole. Between repeats of a single map, you go through many others. The German scientist Sebastian Leitner developed his own system for staggered practice with flashcards, known as the Leitner box. Think of it as a series of four card boxes. The first is learning materials (eg sheet music, hockey moves, and Spanish vocabulary cards) that need to be practiced frequently because mistakes are common. In the second box are the cards you are pretty good at, and this box is practiced less often than the first, maybe by half. The cards in the third box are practiced less often than those in the second, and so on. If you miss a question, make a mistake in the music, drop a pass with one button, move it up one square to practice more often. The basic idea is simply that the more mastery you have, the less practice you get, but if it's important to keep it, it will never completely disappear from your practice set. Beware of the trap of intimacy: the feeling that you know something and don't need to practice it anymore. This familiarity can hurt your self-control if you cut corners. Doug Larsen says, "You have to be disciplined to say, 'Okay, I'm going to force myself to remember it all, and if not, what did I miss, how could I not know?' you have an instructor-generated test or quiz, suddenly you have to do it, there's an expectation, you can't cheat, you can't take mental shortcuts, you just have to do it." The nine quizzes that Andy Sobel completes in the twenty-six meetings in his political economy course is a simple example of the practice of intermittent search and interleaving—as each subsequent quiz moves on to the next job question from the beginning of the semester.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Mix up your exercise ê 65 Interweaving two or more objects during the exercise also gives a kind of distance. Interleaving can also help you develop the ability to distinguish between different types of problems later and choose the right tool from the growing toolbox. With interlacing, you don't go from a complete set of exercises from one topic to another. You change before the end of each workout. A friend of ours describes his own experience with this: "I go to hockey class and we learn how to skate, hold the puck, shoot, and I notice that I get frustrated because we skate a little and just when I think, I get it. , we move on to holding a stick and I go home frustrated and say "Why won't this guy let us do these things until we get it?" , that it is more effective to spread the practice over these different skills rather than honing each one in turn. The athlete is frustrated because the learning is not progressing quickly, but next week he will be better at all aspects, skating, stick handling, etc., than if he spent each session honing one skill. Like interweaving, varied practice helps students build a broad schema, the ability to assess changing conditions, and tailor responses as needed. It is likely that interweaving and variety help students move beyond memorization to a higher level of conceptual learning and application, building more comprehensive, deep, and sustained learning that manifests in motor skills as a fundamental habit force. What the researchers call "blocked practice" can easily be confused with differentiated practice. It's like the old LPs that could only play their songs in the same order. In locked practice, commonly (but not exclusively) found in sports, an exercise is repeated over and over. The player moves from one station to another and performs a different maneuver at each station.

Sådan øvede LA Kings one-touch-pasningen Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 66 before they embraced religion and began to change it. As always, practice flashcards in the same order. You need to shuffle your flashcards. If you always practice the same skills in the same way, from the same spot on the ice or field, in the same set of math problems, or in the same sequence in a flight simulator, you will starve your learning in no time. causes of diversity. Distance, interweaving and variety are natural features of our lives. Every patient visit or football match is a test and exercise in gaining practice. Every routine road check is a test for a police officer. And every stop along the way is different, which enriches the police officer's explicit and implicit memory and, if attentive, makes him more effective in the future. A popular expression is 'learning from experience'. Some will never learn. Perhaps a difference between those who do and those who do not is whether they have developed a habit of reflection. Reflection is a form of recall exercise (What happened? What did I do? How did it turn out?), enriched by elaboration (What would I do differently next time?). As Doug Larsen reminds us, the connections between neurons in the brain are highly malleable. "Getting the brain to work is what seems to make the difference—putting in more complex networks and then using those circuits over and over again, making them more reliable." Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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67 When Mia Blun, a twenty-three-year-old lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps, was assigned to logistics in Okinawa, she had to punch her ticket at jump school.

Describing the moment two years later, she said: "I hate falling, that feeling in my chest. There's not a day in my life when I want to jump out of a plane. I wouldn't even walk down a slide before I was in middle school. But I was in charge of a platoon of Marines deploying parachutes, jumping out of planes and dropping cargo. This is one of the most sought after jobs as a logistician, very hard to get. My commander said, you know, 'You're going to be in charge of an airlift platoon.' If you don't want to do it, I'll move you somewhere else and we'll give the next guy the job." There's no way I'm letting someone else have the job everyone's been dreaming of. So I looked him right in the face and said, "Yes, sir, I'm jumping out of planes." 14 Embrace Difficulties Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 68 Mia is five foot seven tall with blonde ambition. Her father, Frank, a former Marine, is delighted. "She will do more pull-ups than most of the boys in her class. She holds the Mary Land state record for bench press and was sixth in the NCAA in powerlifting.

He speaks very softly; you just don't see it coming.” When we had Mia all to ourselves, we asked her if Frank was blowing smoke.

she laughed. "He likes to exaggerate." But under pressure she confessed the facts. Until recently, female Marines were required to do arm hangs instead of pull-ups (where the chin intersects the chin-up bar), but recently tightened rules that went into effect in 2014 require at least three pull-ups. oops, same as minimum for men. The targets are eight pull-ups for women and twenty for men. Mia is thirteen and shoots twenty. As a student at the Naval Academy, she qualified for the national powerlifting competition two years in a row - three sets of bench press, squats and deadlifts - setting Mary Land state records. So we know she's tough. Reluctance to fall is instinctive self-preservation, but her decision to accept the assignment was predetermined, the kind of stubbornness the Marines and Blundetto are known for. Mia has a sister and two brothers. They are all active duty Marines. It turned out that the third time Mia jumped out the door of a C130 troop carrier at 1,250 feet, she fell directly into another soldier's inflated parachute. But we are ahead of history. We are interested in training her at the show jumping school because she is a good example of how some of the difficulties that require more effort and slow down learning - distance, interlacing, mixed exercises and more - more than outweigh the disadvantages of making learning stronger, more precise and more enduring. Short-term obstacles that promote stronger learning have become known as desirable difficulties, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Overcoming difficulties ê 69 expressions coined by psychologists Elizabeth and Robert Bjork. 2 Fort Benning, Georgia Military Jumping School is designed to make sure you get it right and you do it, and is a model of learning through desired difficulty. You cannot carry a notebook and write notes. You listen, you see, you repeat and you act. Jump school is where testing is the main medium of instruction, and the testing is ongoing.

And like everything else military, the jump school follows a strict protocol. Get it right or get a suitcase. A parachute drop, in PLF military jargon, is a technique that involves hitting the ground and rolling so that the impact is distributed to the metatarsal, the side of the calf, the side of the thigh, the side of the hip, and the side of the back. There are six possible directions in which you can fall along your body, depending on the conditions at the time, such as direction of drift, terrain, wind, and if you turn as you approach the ground. . When you first encounter this essential skydiving skill, you stand in a gravel pit where PLF is explained and demonstrated. Then you want to try: you practice falling in different planes of the body, get corrective feedback and practice again. Over the next week, the level of difficulty increases. You stand on a platform two meters from the ground. On the command "Ready", rock on your toes, feet and knees together, arms up. On the command "land" you jump off the wall and do your PLF. The test gets harder. You attach yourself to the zip-line several meters off the ground, grab the top T-bar and drift down to the landing site where Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make it stick out ê 70 and make PLF. You practice falling left and right, back and forth and mixing it up. The difficulty increases again. You climb to a platform twelve feet off the ground, where you practice putting on your harness, checking your gear with the partner system, and jumping through a fake jump door. The harness has parachute-like risers attached to the Tyrolean line but allows the same long arc of suspension, and when you jump you have an instant feeling of free fall followed by wide swings of the suspension as you move along the cable, familiarizing yourself with the movements real jump. But below, it's the instructor, not you, who pulls the trigger and drops you the last two or three meters to the ground, so now you're randomly falling from all directions, simulating what's about to come. You then climb a 34-meter tower to practice all the elements of a jump and the choreography of a mass exit from an airplane, learn what it's like to fall from a height, how to deal with equipment failures, how to jump with a load of heavy combat equipment. Through demonstration and simulation, with increasing levels of difficulty to be mastered to progress from one to the next, you will learn how to board an aircraft as a jump crew member and participate in a command sequence of thirty soldiers positioning themselves for a mass exit over a drop zone.

How to get out of the jump door properly, how to count one thousand, two thousand, three thousand, four thousand and feel the parachute open or, if you reach six thousand, how to pull the spare parachute cord; how to handle twisted suspension lines, avoid collisions, hold on to the wind, clear up tangled control lines; how not to steal air from another jumper; unforeseen circumstances when landing in trees, water or electricity Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Overcoming difficulties ê 71 lines; how to jump day and night, in different winds and weather. The knowledge and skills to be acquired are many, and the practice is spread out and mixed, by default, waiting your turn at each of the parking areas, mock-up aircraft launchers, jump platforms and harness mechanisms, and by necessity covering everything, what different components must be mastered and integrated. Finally, if you make it to week 3 without flushing, you'll really jump by doing five military transport exits. After completing the training and five successful jumps, you earn jump wings and Airborne certification. On the third jump, Mia was first in line at the port jump door with fourteen jumpers lined up behind her and another fourteen behind the guy at the opposite door.

“So what does the first person, in this case me, you pass the static line to the airborne sergeant and there's a light and it's red or green and you get a one minute warning and then a thirty seconds. I stand in front of these doors for a few minutes and they are beautiful. It's probably one of the most beautiful things I've ever seen, but I was terrified. There was nothing to stand in my way, nothing to think about than waiting and waiting for "Go!" The guy at the other door left, then I jumped up and counted a thousand, two - a thousand - and suddenly, at four thousand, I had a green parachute wrapped around me! I think to myself himself: There's no way, this is my parachute! I felt my parachute open, I felt this exhilaration. I realized I was on the first jumper, so I just floated out of the parachute and walked away from him." The jumps are wobbly, but for the four tumultuous seconds before the parachute opens, you have neither awareness nor control of your proximity to other jumpers. An incident that Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 72 was of no use thanks to her training, but that's what she says. Did it scare her? Not at all, she said. Mia was prepared to handle it, and her confidence gave her the courage to "just flow." It's one thing to feel confident in your knowledge; it is another to demonstrate mastery. Testing is not only a powerful learning strategy, but also a test of the accuracy of your own assessment of what you know how to do. When confidence is based on repeated performance, demonstrated in tests that simulate real conditions, you can withstand it. Coming face to face with a jump door can always be scary, but Mia says that the moment she walks, the fear disappears. How the Learning Process Works To help you understand how difficulty can be desirable, we will here briefly describe how the learning process works. Coding Let's imagine you are Mia standing in a gravel pit watching a jump instructor explain and demonstrate a parachute landing. The brain processes your perceptions into chemical and electrical changes that create a mental representation of the observed patterns. This process of converting sensory perceptions into meaningful representations in the brain is still not fully understood. We call this process encoding and the new representations within brain memory traces. Think of notes written or sketched on a notebook, our short-term memory. Much of the way we go about our daily lives is governed by ephemera that clutter our short-term memory, and thankfully we quickly forget them - How to Move a Broken Lock by Brown, Peter C. et al. . Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Overcome Difficulties ê 73 the closet you used today when you put on your gym clothes; remember to stop for an oil change after your workout. But the experiences and learnings we want to salt for the future need to be stronger and more durable – in Mia's case, signature moves that will allow her to hit the ground running without breaking her ankle or worse. 3 Consolidation The process of strengthening these mental representations for long-term memory is called consolidation. The new science is transitory: its meaning is not fully formed and therefore easily changed. During consolidation, the brain reorganizes and stabilizes memory traces. This can take several hours or more and involves deep processing of new material, where researchers believe the brain reproduces or practices learning by giving it meaning, filling in the blanks, and connecting it to previous experiences and other knowledge already stored in memory in the long term. Prior knowledge is a prerequisite for making sense of new science, and making these connections is an important consolidation task. Mia's considerable athletic skills, physical self-awareness, and past experience represent a wealth of knowledge to which elements of a successful PLF could find many connections. As we have noted, sleep seems to help with memory consolidation, but in any case, consolidation and the transition from learning to long-term storage occurs over a period of time. An apt analogy for how the brain consolidates new knowledge might be the experience of writing an essay. The first draft is thin, imprecise. You discover what you want to say by trying to write it. After a few adjustments, you sharpened the piece and cut off some redundant points.

Set aside to ferment. When you pick it up again, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make it stick ê 74 a day or two later, it will become clearer to you what you want to say. You can now notice that you are aware of three main points. You combine them with examples and background information that your audience knows. You rearrange and combine elements of your argument to make it more effective and elegant. Similarly, the learning process often begins with a sense of disorganization and clumsiness; the most important aspects are not always the most important. Consolidation helps to structure and consolidate learning, and especially retrieval over time, as the act of retrieving memory from long-term memory can both strengthen memory traces and cause them to re-modify so that they e.g. can merge with newer knowledge. This process is called reconsolidation. In this way, the search modifies and reinforces learning. Imagine that on the second day of skydiving school you are placed in a position where you have to make a parachute landing and you have difficulty regaining your posture and composure - feet and knees together, knees slightly bent, eyes fixed on the horizon - but in reflex to cushion the fall, you throw your arm forward and forget to bring your elbows to the side. You could have broken your arm or dislocated your shoulder if it was the real thing. Efforts to recreate what you learned the day before are futile, but it makes the critical elements of the maneuver clearer and reconsolidated for better memory. If you practice something over and over at lightning speed, whether it's a parachute landing or verb conjugation in a foreign language, you rely on your short-term memory and it requires very little mental effort. You show satisfactory improvement fairly quickly, but you haven't done much to strengthen the core representation of these skills. Your current behavior is not an indicator of sustainability Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Overcoming difficulties ê 75 science. On the other hand, when you allow memory to recede a bit, such as by skipping or interleaving exercises, recall is more difficult, your work is less efficient, and you feel let down, but your learning is deeper, and you will recover more easily in the future. 4 Retrieval Learning, memory and forgetting work together in interesting ways. Sustained and robust learning requires two things to be done. First, when we recode and consolidate new material from short-term memory to long-term memory, we need to anchor it securely there. Second, we need to bind the material to a diverse set of cues that will make us adept at recalling the knowledge later. Having effective keywords is an aspect of learning that is often overlooked. The task is more than memorizing knowledge. Being able to retrieve it when we need it is just as important. The reason we can't remember how to tie knots, even after we've been taught, is because we don't practice and apply what we've learned. Suppose you're in a city park one day and you meet an Eagle Scout learning knots. On a whim, you take an hour-long lesson. He demonstrates eight or ten specimens, explains what each one is good for, makes you practice tying them, and sends you back with a short rope and cheat sheet. You come home with the intention of learning these knots, but life is full and you fail to practice them. They are quickly forgotten, and history could have ended there without science. But it happens that next spring you buy a small fishing boat, and you want to attach the anchor to the rope. With the rope in hand and a little embarrassed, you remember from the lesson that there was a knot to tie a loop at the end of the rope. You are now practicing downloading. You Find Your Cheater Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 76 sheets and learn how to tie a bowl again. You put a small loop around the rope, then take the short end and pull it through, silently reciting the little memory device you were given: the rabbit comes out of its hole, circles the tree and comes back down. Download again. A little hug and you've got your knot, a nifty piece of the boy scout you've always wanted to know. Later, you put a piece of rope next to the chair where you watch TV and practice your bow during commercials. You practice with intervals. In the coming weeks, you'll be surprised how many small tasks are easier if you have a piece of rope with a loop at the end. More dispersed practice. By August, you had discovered all possible uses and goals in your life for the cup node. Knowledge, skills and experiences that are alive and meaningful and those that are practiced periodically stay with us. If you know you're about to jump out of the transport, listen carefully when they tell you when and how to pull the spare parachute cord, or what can go wrong at 1200 feet and how to do it. "Just get out of it somehow." The mental test you do while lying on the bunk, too tired to sleep and wishing the next day was over and jumping well, is a form of staggered practice, and it helps too. Extending Learning: Updating Search Tips There is virtually no limit to the amount of learning we can remember as long as we relate it to what we already know. In fact, because new learning depends on prior learning, the more we learn, the more possible connections we make for further learning. However, our recovery options are severely limited.

Most of what we have learned is not available to us at the moment. This search restriction is useful to us: if each Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Embrace Difficulties ê 77 memory was always close at hand, it would be difficult to sift through the vast amount of material to find out the knowledge you need at any given time: where did I put my hat, how to synchronize electronic devices, What goes into the perfect Manhattan brandy? Knowledge is more durable if it is deeply rooted, meaning you have a firm and deep understanding of a concept, it has a practical meaning or heavy emotional weight in your life, and it is related to other knowledge you have in the memory. How easily you can recall knowledge from your internal archives depends on context, on recent use, and on the number and clarity of clues you have attached to the knowledge and can recall to help bring it to light. 5 Here's the hard part. As you go through life, you often have to forget cues from older, competing memories in order to connect them with new ones. To learn Italian in the Middle Ages, you might have to forget your high school French, because every time you think "to be" and hope to come up with an Italian essere, one pops up, despite your best intentions. When traveling in England, suppress cues to drive on the right side of the road so you can establish reliable cues to stay on the left. Well-ingrained knowledge, such as real fluency in French or years of experience driving on the right side of the road, is easily renewed later, after a period of disuse or when interrupted by a competition to extract clues. It is not the knowledge itself that has been forgotten, but the traces that make it possible to find and rediscover it. Tips for the new science, driving on the left, replacing tips for the old, driving on the right (if we're lucky). The paradox is that some forgetting is often necessary for new learning. 6 When switching from PC to Mac or from one Windows platform to another, you have to do a tremendous amount of work by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 78 forgets to learn the architecture of the new system and become adept at manipulating it so easily that your attention can be focused on doing your work and not operating the machine. Another example is training in a jumping school:

After military service, many paratroopers are interested in smoke jumping. Smokejumpers use different aircraft, different equipment and different jumping protocols. Training in a military jumping school is cited as a definite disadvantage to smoke jumping, as you have to unlearn a set of routines you have practiced for reflex and replace them with another. Even in those cases where the two areas of learning seem so similar to the uninitiated - jumping out of a plane with a parachute on your back - you may have to lose track of the complex knowledge you possess if you want to acquire new knowledge. one. We know the problem of redistributing signals from our own lives, even at the simplest levels. When our friend Jack first meets Joan, we sometimes call the pair "Jack and Jill" because the clue "Jack and" evokes an old nursery rhyme so deeply embedded in the memory. Around the time we have "Jack and" reliably point to "Joan", unfortunately Joan knocks him out and he's hanging out with Jenny. Oh yen!

Half the time we want to say Jack and Jenny, we find ourselves saying Jack and Joan. It would have been easier if Jack had taken the phone from Katie, so the final K on his behalf passed us on to the initial K on hers, but he had no such luck. Alliteration can be a helpful or subversive clue. In all the confusion, you don't forget Jill, Joan or Jenny, but you "re-destinate" your tracks to follow the changing opera of Jack's life. 7 It is very important that when you learn new things, you do not lose most of what you have learned well in life from your long-term memory; rather, by not using or redistributing keywords, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Accept the difficulties ê 79 you forget it in the sense that you are not able to remember it easily.

For example, if you have moved several times, you may not remember your previous address twenty years ago. But if you're given a multiple-choice test for an address, you can probably choose it easily because it's still a little stuck in the uncleaned closet of your mind. If you have ever immersed yourself in writing a story about your past, imagining the people and places of days past, you may have been surprised by the memories that have begun to flood back and recall things long forgotten. Context can trigger memories, like when the right key opens an old lock. In Marcel Proust's Remembrance of Things Past, the narrator laments that he cannot remember his youthful days in his aunt and uncle's French village, until one day the taste of a cake dipped in lime blossom tea brings it all back, all the people and events he , which he thought had long since been lost to time.

Most people have Proust-like experiences where a sight, sound or smell brings back a memory full force, even an episode you haven't thought about in years. 8 Easier Is Not Better Psychologists have discovered a strange inverse relationship between the ease of recall practice and the ability of practice to enhance learning: The easier it is for you to remember a knowledge or skill, the less you will benefit from practice. t its storage. Conversely, the more effort you put into retrieving knowledge or skills, the more retrieval practice will strengthen them. Not long ago, the California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, baseball team engaged in an interesting experiment to improve hitting skills. They were all very experienced players, adept at making regular connections. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 80 with the ball, but they agreed to additional batting practice twice a week using two different training regimes to see which type of training would produce better results. Hitting a baseball is one of the most difficult skills in sports. It takes less than half a second for the ball to reach home plate. At this point, the batter must perform a complex combination of perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills: determine the type of pitch, anticipate how the ball will move, and aim and time the swing to arrive at the same place and time for the ball. . . This chain of perception and reaction must be so deeply ingrained that it becomes automatic because the ball is in the catcher's mitt long before one begins to think about how to connect it. Some of the Cal Poly crew practiced the standard way.

They practiced hitting forty-five courts, evenly divided into three sets. Each set consisted of fifteen throws of one type of court. For example, the first set will consist of fifteen fastballs, the second set fifteen curl balls, and the third set fifteen innings. It was a form of mass exercise. With each set of 15 pitches, as the batter saw more pitches of this type, he became satisfyingly better at predicting balls, timing strikes and linking. Learning seemed easy. The rest of the team was assigned a more difficult training program: three types of pitches were randomly alternated in a block of forty-five throws. For each pitch, the batter had no idea what type to expect. By the end of 45 swings, he was still having difficulty connecting to the ball. These players did not seem to develop the skill shown by their teammates. The interweaving and spacing of different tones made learning more tedious and slower. Additional training sessions continued twice a week for six weeks. Finally, when the players' strikes were assessed, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Overcoming the difficulties ê 81 The two groups clearly benefited from the extra training differently, and not in the way the players expected. Those who practiced on randomly interspersed pitches now presented significantly better strokes compared to those who practiced on a type of pitch that was thrown over and over again. These results are all the more interesting when you consider that these players were already trained hitters prior to the extra training. Raising their performance to an even higher level is a good proof of the effectiveness of the training regime. Here again we see two familiar lessons. First, some difficulties that require more effort and slow down visible progress - such as spacing, interweaving and blending exercises - will be less productive at the moment, but will more than compensate for this by making learning stronger and more accurate. and durable. Second, our assessments of which learning strategies are best for us are often wrong, characterized by the illusion of mastery. As the Cal Poly baseball players practiced curveball after curveball over fifteen pitches, they found it easier to remember the sensations and reactions necessary for that kind of pitch: the look of the spinning ball, the way the ball changed direction, how quickly it changed direction say , and how long it took to wait until it bends. Per for mance improved, but the increasing ease of recalling these perceptions and responses led to little sustained learning. One of the skills is hitting a spin ball when you know the spin ball will be thrown; another skill is hitting a curveball when you don't know it's coming. Baseball players need to develop the latter skill, but often practice the former, which, being a form of mass training, builds a permanent gain in short-term memory. The Cal Poly batters found it more difficult to regain the necessary skills when practice included random pitches. Overcoming this challenge made per-for-mance gains painfully slow, but also long-lasting.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make it stick ê 82 This paradox is at the heart of the concept of desirable learning disabilities: the more effort it takes to find (or, in effect, re-learn) something, the better you will learn it. In other words, the more you've forgotten a topic, the more effective relearning will be in shaping lasting knowledge. 9 How Effort Helps Reconsolidate Memory The effortful recall of learning, as it does in periodic practice, involves "reloading" or reconstructing skill items or material anew from long-term memory, rather than mindlessly repeating them from short-term memory. 10 During this focused, effortful recall, learning becomes flexible again:

its salient aspects become clearer, and the resulting reconsolidation helps strengthen meaning, strengthen connections to prior knowledge, strengthen cues and retrieval pathways for later recall, and weaken competing pathways.

Staggered practice, which allows for some forgetfulness between sessions, reinforces both learning and quick recovery tips and routes when that learning is needed again, such as when a pitcher tries to surprise a batter with a spin ball after hitting several fastballs balls. The more effort it takes to recall a memory or perform a skill, assuming the effort is successful, the more remembering or performing is beneficial to learning. 11 Collective practice gives us a warm feeling of mastery because we loop information into short-term memory without having to reconstruct learning from long-term memory. But like rereading as a learning strategy, fluency gained through mass practice is transient and our sense of mastery is illusory. This is the careful process of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Embrace Difficulties ê 83 knowledge reconstruction that triggers reconsolidation and deeper learning. Creating Mental Models With enough practice, a complex set of interrelated ideas or a sequence of fine motor skills is brought together into a meaningful whole, creating a mental model somewhat like a "brain application." Learning to drive a car involves many simultaneous activities that require all our concentration and dexterity while learning them. But over time, these combinations of cognitive and motor skills—for example, the perceptions and maneuvers required to parallel park or manipulate the gear stick—become ingrained as sets of mental models related to driving. Mental models are forms of deep-seated and highly effective skills (seeing and firing a curveball) or knowledge structures (memorized sequence of chess moves) that, like habits, can be adapted and applied to different circumstances. A per for mance expert is built through thousands of hours of practice in your field of knowledge, under a variety of conditions, thanks to which you collect a huge library of such mental models that allow you to correctly recognize a given situation and instantly choose and execute the correct answer. Expanding Mastery A search practice that you do at different times and in different contexts, weaving through different study materials, has the advantage of gathering new associations with the material. This process builds interconnected networks of knowledge that enhance and support expertise in a given field. It also multiplies tips for retrieving knowledge, increasing the versatility with which you can apply it later.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 84 Think of an experienced chef who has gained a complex understanding of how flavors and textures interact; how ingredients change shape when exposed to heat; different effects that can be achieved with a saucepan and wok, copper and cast iron. Think of a fly fisherman who can sense the presence of a trout and accurately assess the likely species, make the right choice of dry fly, nymph or streamer, judge the wind and know how and where to cast that fly to get the trout to get up.

Think of a kid on a BMX bike who can do bunny hops, tail wags, 180s and wall tapping in an unfamiliar streetscape. Interleaving and variation mix contexts of practice and other skills and knowledge with which the new material is associated. This makes our mental models more versatile, allowing us to apply our science to a wider range of situations.

Supports conceptual learning How do people learn concepts, for example the difference between dogs and cats? Stumbled across various examples by chance - chihuahuas, tabby cats, great danes, picture lions, calico cats, welsh terriers. Staggered and interrupted exposure characterizes most normal human experiences.

This is a good way to learn because this kind of exposure strengthens the skills of discrimination - the process of noticing details (a turtle comes up for air, a fish doesn't) - and induction: guessing the general rule ( fish can breathe in water). Recall the interlaced study of birds in one case and images in another that helped students distinguish between types of birds or works by different painters while also learning to identify basic similarities between examples within the genre or body of work by the artist. When students were asked about their preferences and beliefs, they thought that Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Accept the difficulties ê 85 the experience of studying many examples of one species of bird before examining examples of another species has resulted in better science. However, the interlaced strategy, which was more difficult and felt clumsy, provided better discrimination between types without inhibiting the ability to learn similarities within a type. Similar to baseball players' practice of batting, interleaving made it difficult to find earlier examples of a particular species, further strengthening knowledge of which birds are representative of which species. The difficulty of interleaving provides another type of learning stimulus. The intertwined practice of related but dissimilar geometric solids requires noting similarities and differences to choose the correct formula for calculating volumes. This increased sensitivity to similarities and differences during interleaved practice is thought to lead to the encoding of more complex and nuanced representations of the material being studied—a better understanding of how samples or types of problems are characteristic and why I ask for another interpretation or solution. Let's say why a northern pike will attack with a spoon or a wobbler, but a bass will happily powder its nose until you see fit to cast it with a maggot or a popper. 12 Increased Versatility The reproducibility difficulties of distance, interweaving, and variation can be overcome by appealing to the same thought processes that will later be needed to apply science to everyday situations. These learning strategies mimic the challenges of hands-on experience and follow the admonition of “practice while you play and you'll play while you practice,” enhancing what researchers call knowledge transfer, which Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 86 the ability to apply the acquired knowledge in new situations. The Cal Poly training experiment in overcoming the difficulties posed by random types of pitches built a broader "vocabulary" of mental processes to recognize the nature of the challenge (e.g., what the pitcher is throwing) and select from possible responses than the narrower mental processes adequately to excel at lots of undifferentiated experience. Remember the elementary school students who were more adept at throwing beanbags in three-foot baskets after practicing throwing in two- and four-foot baskets, compared to students who only practiced throwing in three-foot baskets curve. Remember the increasing difficulty and complexity of simulation training at a jump school or Matt Brown's business jet cockpit simulator. Preparing the Mind for Learning When you are asked to wrestle with a solution to a problem before being shown how to solve it, the next solution is better absorbed and retained. When you've bought a fishing boat and you're trying to attach an anchor line, you're much more likely to learn and remember a rope knot than when you're standing in a city park and a boy shows you a bowline scout who thinks you would live a richer life if you had a handful of knots in your repertoire. Other Learning Strategies to Address Desirable Difficulties We tend to think of disruptions as obstacles to learning, but some types of disruptions can benefit learning, and the positive effects are sometimes surprising. Would you prefer to read an article that has a normal font or a font that is slightly out of focus? You would almost certainly choose Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Overcoming difficulties ê 87 var. But when the text on the page is a little unclear or presented in a font that is a little difficult to decipher, people remember the content better. Should the outline of the lecture follow the exact flow of the chapter in the textbook, or is it better if the lecture does not fit the text at some points? It turns out that when the lecture outline runs in a different order than the textbook passage, the effort to distinguish the main ideas and reconcile the discrepancies results in better recall of the content. Another surprise is that when letters are omitted from words in the text, requiring the reader to complete them, reading slows down and memory improves. In all these examples, the change from the normal presentation introduces a difficulty—a disruption of fluency—that forces the learner to work harder to construct a meaningful interpretation. Extra effort increases understanding and learning. (Of course, learning will not improve if the difficulty completely overshadows the meaning or cannot be overcome.) Generation. Even when you are asked about material you know, the simple act of filling in a gap has the effect of strengthening your memory of the material and your ability to recall it later. In tests, having to give an answer rather than choosing a multiple-choice option often provides a greater learning benefit. Having to write a short essay makes them even stronger. Overcoming these mild difficulties is a form of active learning in which students engage in higher-order thinking tasks rather than passively receiving knowledge from others. When asked to provide an answer or solution to something that is new to you, the power of generation will help Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 88 science is even more visible. One explanation for this effect is the idea that when you search for a solution by retrieving related knowledge from memory, you reinforce the path to a learning gap even before an answer is given to fill it, and when you fill it, it is made links to the related material fresh in your mind after training. For example, if you are from Vermont and are asked to name the capital of Texas, you might start thinking about the possibilities:

Dallas? San Antonio? El Paso? Houston? Even if you are unsure, it will help you think of alternatives before you hit (or get) the right answer. (Austin, of course.) As you wrestle with the question, you rack your brain for something that might give you an idea. You may be curious, even confused or frustrated and very aware of a gap in your knowledge that needs to be filled. When you see a solution, a light turns on. Failed attempts to solve the problem encourage deep processing of the answer when it is later given, creating fertile ground for encoding it in a way that it is not possible to simply read the answer. It is better to solve the problem than to remember the solution. It is better to try a solution and give the wrong answer than not to try at all. 14 Spending a few minutes reviewing what we learned from an experience (or a recent class) and asking ourselves questions is known as reflection. For example, after a lecture or reading assignment, you can ask yourself:

What are the main ideas? What are the examples? How does this relate to what I already know? After an experience where you practice new knowledge or skills, you can ask: What went well? What could have gone better? What Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Overcoming Difficulties ê 89 Do I need to learn something to master it better, or what strategies can I use next time to get better results? Reflection can include several of the cognitive activities we discussed that lead to stronger learning. These include retrieval (bringing newly acquired knowledge into your mind), elaboration (for example, combining new knowledge with what you already know) and generation (for example, restating key ideas in your own words or visualizing and practicing in your mind what you may do differently next time). One form of reflection that is gaining ground in the classroom is 'writing to learn'. Essentially, students reflect on the final topic of the class in a short writing assignment where they can express the main ideas in their own words and relate them to other concepts discussed in or outside of class. (For example, read in Chapter 8 about the "study sections" that Mary Pat Wenderoth assigns to her students in her human physiology course.) generations) have been well established in empirical studies. An interesting study conducted recently explored "writing to learn" in detail as a learning tool. More than eight hundred students attended the lectures throughout the semester in a few introductory psychology classes. After presenting a key concept within a given lecture, the lecturer asked the students to write for the study. Students produced their own written summaries of key ideas, for example transforming concepts in their own words and developing concepts by generating examples of them. For other key concepts presented in a lecture, students were shown a set of slides summarizing those concepts and spent several minutes copying verbatim key ideas and examples from the slide.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 90 What was the result? At mid-semester exams, students were asked questions to assess their understanding of key concepts they worked with during their studies. They scored significantly better (about half a grade) on those they rewrote in their own words than on those they copied, showing that it wasn't just exposure to concepts that benefited learning. In subsequent tests, conducted about two months later to measure recall, the benefits of writing as a form of reflection declined but remained strong. 15 Errors and the myth of error-free learning In the 1950s and 1960s, psychologist B.F. Skinner advocated the adoption of "error-free learning" methods in teaching, believing that student errors were counterproductive and due to incorrect teaching. The theory of errorless learning led to teaching techniques where students were fed new material in small chunks and tested immediately, while still having the language fresh in short-term memory, so to speak, and spitting easily. on the test form. There was virtually no chance of making a mistake. Since then, we have understood that short-term memory recall is an effective learning strategy, and mistakes are part of the effort to master new material more and more. But in our Western culture, where achievement is seen as an indicator of ability, many students see mistakes as mistakes and do everything in their power to avoid them. Error aversion can be reinforced by instructors who work with the belief that when students can make mistakes, those mistakes will be learned. 16 This is a misguided impulse. When students make mistakes and receive corrective feedback, mistakes are not learned.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Embrace Difficulty ê 91 Even strategies that are likely to fail, such as asking someone to try to solve a problem before showing them how to do it, result in more effective learning and memory of correct information than more passive learning strategies, provided that there is corrective feedback. Furthermore, people who have been taught that learning is a struggle that often involves making mistakes will be more inclined to take on difficult challenges and will see mistakes not as mistakes but as lessons and turning points on the road to mastery .

All you have to do is look at the kid across the hall who is engrossed in working on his avatar as he goes through the action game levels on his Xbox video console. Fear of failure can poison science by creating an aversion to the kind of experimentation and risk-taking that characterizes the pursuit or diminution of strength under pressure, as in test conditions. In the latter case, students who are very afraid of making mistakes when taking tests may actually do worse because of their anxiety. Why? Much of their working memory capacity appears to be used to monitor their work (How am I doing? Am I making mistakes?), leaving less working memory available to solve problems posed by the test. "Working memory" refers to the amount of information you can remember while working on a problem, especially when faced with distraction. Everyone's working memory is severely limited, some more than others, and greater capacity of working memory correlates with higher IQ. To investigate a theory about how fear of failure reduces test performance, sixth graders in France were given very difficult anagram problems that none of them could solve. After struggling with problems without success, half the children were given a ten-minute lesson in which they were taught that difficulty is an essential part of learning, mistakes are natural and expected, and practice helps, as does learning to ride a horse. and Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 92 bike. The other children were simply asked how they solved the anagrams. Both groups were then given a difficult test, the results of which provided a measure of working memory. Children who were taught that mistakes are a natural part of learning showed significantly better use of working memory than others. These children did not use their working memory to agonize over the difficulty of the task. The theory was then tested in variations of the original study. The findings support the notion that difficulty can create a sense of incompetence that causes anxiety, which in turn interferes with the learning process, and that "students perform better when they have space to deal with difficulty." 17 These studies show that not all learning difficulties are desirable. Anxiety during the test seems to be an unwelcome difficulty. This research also highlights the importance of students understanding that difficulty in learning new things is not only expected, but can also be beneficial. Until now, the French study relies on many others, especially the work of Carol Dweck and Anders Ericsson, which we discuss in Chapter 7 on the topic of increasing intellectual capacity. Dweck's work shows that people who believe that their intellectual abilities are fixed from birth, encoded in their genes, tend to avoid challenges where they might not succeed, because failure seems to be a sign of less innate abilities. In contrast, people who are helped to understand that effort and learning change the brain and that their intellectual abilities are highly dependent on their own control are more likely to take on difficult challenges and persevere to achieve them. They see failure as a sign of effort and a bend in the road, not as a measure of impossibility and the end of the road. Anders Ericsson's work examining the nature of the performance expert shows that achieving excellence requires Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ liberty/retail.action?docID=3301452.

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Overcome the Hardships - 93 hours of practice where you strive to surpass your current level of skill, a process where failure becomes a necessary experience on the road to mastery. The study of French sixth-graders received wide publicity and inspired a staged "Festival of Mistakes" by an elite school in Paris to teach French students that making mistakes is a constructive part of learning:

it is not a sign of failure but of effort. Festival organizers argued that modern society's focus on showcasing results had led to a culture of intellectual fear, starved of the kind of intellectual ferment and risk-taking that produced the great discoveries that marked French history. It doesn't take a big conceptual leap to go from the "Festival of Errors" in Paris to the "FailCon" in San Francisco, where tech entrepreneurs and venture capitalists meet once a year to study the failures that gave them the critical insights they needed. to change your business strategies to succeed. Thomas Edison called failure a source of inspiration and is said to have remarked, "I haven't failed. I've just discovered 10,000 ways that don't work." He argued that persistence in the face of failure is the key to success. Failure is at the heart of the scientific method, which has expanded our understanding of the world we live in. Qualities such as persistence and resilience, where failure is seen as useful information, underpin successful innovation in all fields and underlie almost everything successful learning. Failures indicate the need to redouble our efforts or trigger us to try different approaches. In his 2005 speech to Stanford University graduates, Steve Jobs said that at the age of thirty, he was fired in 1985 from Apple Computer, which he co-founded. “I didn't see it at the time, but it turned out that being fired from Apple was the best thing that could have happened to me.

The weight of success has been replaced by ease Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 94 of being a beginner again, less sure about everything. It freed me to enter one of the most creative periods of my life. “It is not failure that is desirable, it is fearless effort despite risks, discovering what works and what does not, which sometimes only failure can reveal. Confidence is that trying to solve a puzzle serves us better than being fed a solution, even if we can't find the answer on our first try. Example of Generative Learning As we said earlier, the process of trying to solve a problem without the benefit of learning is called generative learning, which means that the learner generates the answer rather than simulating it. Generation is another name for old-fashioned trial and error. We all know the stories of skinny kids in Silicon Valley garages who play with computers and turn out to be billionaires. We'd like to give a different kind of example here: Bonnie Blodgett from Minnesota.

Bonnie is a writer and self-taught gardener who constantly argues with the voice in her head that keeps babbling about all the ways her latest whim is sure to mess up and embarrass her. Although she is a woman with strong aesthetic sensibilities, she also has epic doubts. Her "learning style" can be called a leap before you look, because if you look first, you probably won't like what you see. Her garden writings appear under the name "The Bubbling Gardener". This designation is a way of telling her voices of doubt to take a trip because regardless of the consequences of her next whim, she's already rolling up her sleeves. “Wandering means starting your project before you figure out how to do it the right way, before you realize what you're getting into. For me, the risk of finding out what gets Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Embrace Difficulties ê 95 will be an overwhelming obstacle at first. 18 Bonnie's success shows how tackling a problem promotes effective learning and how sustained commitment to progress in a particular area through trial and error leads to complex mastery and a greater understanding of how things fit together. As we spoke, she had just traveled to southern Minnesota to meet with a group of farmers who wanted to learn about her horticultural knowledge on everything from layout and design to pest control and irrigation. In the years since she first lowered her shovel, Bonnie's garden writing has gained national recognition and found a devoted following in many places, and her garden has become a destination for other gardeners. She got into ornamental gardening around the time she reached middle age. She had no education, just a burning desire to get her hands dirty and create beautiful spaces on the corner lot of the house she shares with her husband in historic St. Paul. "The experience of creating beauty calms me," she says, but it's strictly a process of discovery. She has always been a writer, and a few years after starting gardening, she started the Garden Letter, a quarterly magazine for northern gardeners, where she recounts her exploits, mishaps, lessons and successes. He writes the way he gardens, with courage and humble humor that conveys funny dirt and unexpected insights that are the fruits of experience. Calling herself The Inept Gardener, she gives herself and us, her readers, permission to make mistakes and move forward. Note that in writing about her experiences, Bonnie engages in two powerful learning processes that go beyond mere gardening. Retrieves details and history of what Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 96 discovered - e.g. an experiment involving the grafting of two species of fruit trees—and then expands on it by explaining the experiment to her readers, combining the result with what she already knows or has about it. As a result, her leaping impulses led her across vast expanses of the plant kingdom and deep into Latin nomenclature and classical horticultural literature.

These impulses also drew her to the aesthetics of space and construction and their mechanics: building stone walls; digging and piping of water facilities; put the dome on the garage; construction of paths, stairs and gates; tearing down the Gothic picket fence and reusing the wood to create something more open and with stronger horizontal lines to lower the soaring verticality of her three-story Victorian house and connect it to the surrounding gardens; to make outdoor spaces more spacious and more visible from the street, while still being constrained to provide the basic sense of privacy that makes a garden a space unto itself. Its spaces are distinctive and asymmetrical, giving the illusion that they have evolved naturally, but are consistent through the repetition of textures, lines and geometry. A simple example of how she regressed towards increasingly complex mastery is the way she adopted plant classification and Latin terminology. "When I started, the world of plants was a completely foreign language to me. I read gardening books and got lost. I didn't know what the plant names were, common or Latin.

I never thought to learn these things. I think: Why do you want to do this? Why don't you just go outside, dig a hole and put something in it? What she liked best were the images that gave her ideas and the pieces of text where the designers used phrases like "my process" to describe Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Embrace the difficulties ê 97 how they achieved the intended effect. It was the possessive pronoun, my trial, that solidified Bonnie in her mad rush to learn by doing. The point is that every gardener's process is unique. Bonnie's process wasn't about following expert guidance, much less learning Linnaean taxonomy or the Latin names for what she stuck in holes and where she pulled a water hose. But as she thrashed about and worked her way through the mud to the magical rooms that danced in her mind, she involuntarily came to Latin and Linnaeus. “You start to find that Latin names are useful.

They can give you a shortcut to understanding the nature of plants and can help you remember. Tardiva, which is the name of the species, comes from the hydrangea, which is the genus." Bonnie had studied Latin in high school along with French and, of course, English, and the memories of that time had begun to awaken. "I can easily see that tardiva means late, like being late. The same word comes after many varieties of plants, so you look at the genus, then the species is tardiva, and now you know that the plant in question is a late bloomer. So you begin to realize that Latin names help you with remembering and you use them more and more.

You also remember plants better, because it is second nature to you that procumbus means crawling, crawling on the ground. It makes sense. So now it is not so difficult to remember that species name when it is related to the genus.

Knowing the Latin names is also important, because then you can be quite specific about the plant. Plants have common names and common names are regional. Actaea racemosa shares the common name black cohosh, but is also known as snakeroot, and these names are often given to other plants. There is only one Actaea racemosa. Gradually, and despite her tendency to resist, she came to the conclusion that Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 98 classical taxonomy of ornamental plants and appreciate the way Linnaeus' diagram shows family relationships and communicates characteristics. Bonnie said farmers she met recently were particularly interested in what she had learned about the benefits of composting and earthworms over chemical fertilizers for building nutrients and aerating the soil, and how to get strong root growth with low water volumes through a home drip irrigation system. She paused as she recounted her encounter with them, wondering how all this knowledge had crept into her. It was never something she intended to conquer. "Look, getting lost really isn't bad. It's good that you're doing something. Many people stop when they think about the enormity of the task and see all that it entails." Of course, in some situations – such as learning how to jump out of a plane and get on with life – wandering is not an optimal learning strategy.Undesirable Difficulties Elizabeth and Robert Bjork, who coined the term 'desirable difficulties', write that difficulties are desirable because "they trigger the encoding and retrieval processes that support learning, understanding and memory. But if the learner does not have the basic knowledge or skills to answer them effectively, they become unwelcome difficulties." 19 Cognitive scientists know from empirical research that testing, placement, interleaving, variation, generation, and certain types of contextual interference lead to stronger learning and memory. Apart from that, we have an intuitive sense of what types of difficulties are undesirable, but due to the lack of necessary research, we cannot decide yet.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Accept Difficulties ê 99 Of course, obstacles you cannot overcome are not desirable. Outlining the lessons in a different order than in the textbook is not a welcome difficulty for students who do not have the literacy or language skills required to hold their train of thought long enough to reconcile differences. If your textbook is written in Lithuanian and you do not know the language, this is not a welcome difficulty. To be desirable, the difficulty must be something students can overcome with increased effort. Intuitively, it makes sense that difficulties that don't reinforce the skills you need or the kinds of challenges you're likely to encounter when you put your learning into practice aren't desirable. Having someone whisper in your ear while you read the news can be important training for a TV presenter. Being harassed by role-playing protesters while perfecting election speeches can help train a politician. But none of these difficulties are likely to help Rotary Club presidents or aspiring YouTube bloggers looking to improve their stage presence. A young Mississippi tugboat pilot may need training to push a string of empty barges high up to the airlock in a strong crosswind. A baseball player may practice hitting a weight on a bat to improve his swing. You can teach a soccer player some ballet principles to teach balance and movement, but you probably can't teach him techniques for a successful golf swing or tennis backhand lick. Is there an overarching principle for the types of obstacles that make science stronger? Time and further research may provide the answer. But the types of difficulties we have just described, the desirability of which is well documented, already offer a large and diverse set of tools.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 100 Take-away learning is a process of at least three steps: The initial encoding of information takes place in short-term working memory before it is consolidated into a coherent representation of knowledge in long-term memory. Consolidation reorganizes and stabilizes memory traces, giving them meaning and making connections with past experiences and other knowledge already stored in long-term memory. The download updates the learning and allows you to apply it when needed. Science is always dependent on a quantity of prior knowledge. We interpret and remember events by building connections with what we already know. Long-term memory capacity is practically unlimited: the more you know, the more possible connections you have to add new knowledge. Because of the enormous capacity of long-term memory, it is crucial to be able to locate and recall what you know when you need it; your ease of recalling what you know depends on recycling the information (to maintain strong retrieval pathways) and on establishing strong retrieval cues that can reactivate memories. Periodic retrieval of information helps strengthen memory connections and cues for memory recall, while weakening pathways to competing memories. The easy practice of memorizing does not help much in learning; the more difficult the practice, the greater the benefit. Remembering to learn from short-term memory, as with flash-fire drills, requires little mental effort and has little long-term benefit. But when you remember it after a while and your understanding of it gets a little rusty, you have to make an effort to reconstruct it. This painstaking retrieval both strengthens memory and makes Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Overcoming Difficulties ê 101 relearning flexibility, leading to its reconsolidation. Reconsolidation helps refresh your memories with new information and connect them with recent learning. Repeated effortful recall or practice helps integrate learning into mental models, where a set of related ideas or a sequence of motor skills is combined into a meaningful whole that can be adapted and applied to later situations. Examples are the perceptions and manipulations associated with driving a car or kicking a curveball out of bounds. When the practice conditions are varied, or when the search is mixed with the practice of other material, we increase our discriminative and inductive abilities and the versatility with which we can apply learning to new conditions at a later time. Interleaving and variations build new connections, expand and strengthen knowledge in memory, and increase the number of clues to be retrieved. Trying to find the answer instead of presenting it, or trying to solve the problem before showing it the solution, leads to better learning and longer retention of the correct answer or solution, even if your attempt to answer is wrong, as long as corrective feedback is provided.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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102 The foundation of our effectiveness is our ability to embrace the world around us and measure ourselves. We constantly evaluate what we know and what we don't know, and whether we are able to solve a task or solve a problem. When we work on something, we observe ourselves and adjust our thinking or actions as we progress. Psychologists call monitoring your own thinking metacognition (meta is Greek for "about"). Learning to be thorough self-observers helps us stay away from dead ends, make good decisions, and think about how we could do better next time. An important part of this skill is being sensitive to the ways in which we can deceive ourselves. One of the problems with poor judgment is that we usually don't know when we have it.

Another problem is the wide variety of ways in which our judgment can be misled.

1 5 Avoid the illusion that you know Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoiding Illusions of Knowledge ê 103 In this chapter, we discuss perceptual illusions, cognitive biases, and memory distortions that often mislead people. We then suggest techniques to keep the assessment consistent with reality. The consequences of misjudgments fill the newspapers.

In the summer of 2008, three hustlers in Minneapolis implemented a system that called for large fast food orders and then fired the delivery man for all the merchandise and cash he was carrying. As a livelihood, it was a model of simplicity. They stuck to it, not considering the point of always ordering from the same two mobile phones and receiving deliveries at the same two addresses. David Garman, a Minneapolis police officer, worked undercover this summer. "It got more and more aggressive. First it was 'maybe they had guns', then suddenly there were a couple of guns and then they hurt people when they robbed them.' It was an August evening when Garman received a call about a large order placed at a Chinese restaurant. He organized a small team in no time and prepared to pose as a supplier. He put on a bulletproof vest, covered it with a plain shirt and stuffed a .45-caliber handgun into his pants. While his colleagues set up positions near the delivery address, Garman picked up the food, drove there and parked, lighting up the front door. He cut a slit in the bottom of the food bag and slipped the .38' er in so it would be in his hand while he carried the package. "38 has a covered hammer so I can shoot in the bag. If I put an automatic in there it would jam and I'd be screwed . So I come with the package and say, "Hey sir, did you order some food?" He says yes, and I think this guy really wants to pay me and I'm going to get out of here, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 104 and it will be the dumbest thing we've ever done. I think if he gives me 40 dollars, I don't even know how much the food is. But he turns his head to look back and two other guys start coming over and pulling their hoods over their heads as they walk towards me. Then I know it's game time. The first guy takes a gun out of his pocket, puts it down, and in one motion puts it to my head and says, "Give me everything you got, bitch, or I'll kill you." I ended up shooting him through the bag. It was four rounds. 2 Not such a great living, after all. The guy was hit low and survived, although he is a smaller man as a result. Garman would have aimed higher if the lunch box wasn't so heavy, and he's learned from that experience: He's better prepared for next time, though he'd rather we didn't describe how to do it. We like to think we're smarter than the average scribbler, and even if we're not, we feel confirmed in this delusion every year when the latest round of Darwin Awards circulates in the emails, this short list of fatal self-harm caused by spectacularly bad judgment, as in the case of a Toronto lawyer who demonstrated the durability of the windows in his 22-story office building by hitting his shoulder against the glass when he broke it and fell through. The truth is that we are all programmed to make errors in judgment. Sound judgment is a skill you must acquire as you become a keen observer of your own thinking and behavior. We start at a disadvantage for several reasons. One is that when we are incompetent, we tend to overestimate our competence and see no reason to change. Another is that as humans we are easily misled by the illusions, cognitive biases, and stories we construct to explain the world around us and our place in Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid delusions of knowledge ê 105 to. To become more competent, even an expert, we must learn to recognize competence when we see it in others, become more accurate judges of what we know and don't know, adopt learning strategies that produce results, and find objective ways to track our progress. Two cognitive systems In his book Thinking, Fast and Slow, Daniel Kahneman describes our two analytical systems. What he calls System 1 (or automatic system) is unconscious, intuitive and immediate. It relies on our senses and memories to assess the situation in an instant. He is a runner who avoids tackles in his run to the end zone. It's a Minneapolis cop who approaches a driver he's pulled over on a chilly day and ducks before he's fully aware that his eye has noticed a bead of sweat running down the driver's temple. System 2 (the controlled system) is our slower process of conscious analysis and reasoning. It is the part of thinking that considers choices, makes decisions, and exercises self-control.

We also use it to train System 1 to recognize and respond to certain situations that require a reflex. The runner uses System 2 when reviewing moves in his manual. An officer uses it when practicing taking a gun from a shooter. A neurosurgeon uses it when practicing to repair a ruptured sinus. System 1 is automatic and highly influential, but it is prone to illusions, and you depend on System 2 to help you manage yourself: to control your impulses, plan ahead, identify choices, consider their consequences, and stick to your actions under control. When a guy in a restaurant walks past a mother with a baby and she yells "Daddy!" this is System 1. When the Blushing Mother Speaks: Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 106 "No baby, it's not Dada, it's a man", she acts as a System 2 proxy, helping the infant to perfect his System 1. System 1 is powerful because it is based on our many years of experience and our deep feelings. System 1 gives us a survival instinct in times of danger and an astonishing dexterity gained through thousands of hours of thoughtful practice in a chosen field of knowledge. In the interaction between System 1 and 2 - the subject of Malcolm Gladwell's book Blink - instant judgment plays against skepticism and thoughtful analysis. Of course, when System 1 conclusions are based on misconceptions or illusions, they can get you into trouble.

Learning when to trust your intuition and when to question it is a big part of how you improve your competence around the world and in any field you want to be an expert in.

It's not just idiots who fall victim. We all do it to varying degrees. For example, pi numbers are prone to many perceptual illusions. They are trained to look after them and use their instruments to know they are doing everything right.

A terrifying example with a happy ending is China Airlines Flight 006 on a winter day in 1985. The Boeing 747 was 41,000 feet above the Pacific Ocean, nearly ten hours into an eleven-hour flight from Taipei to Los Angeles, when engine number four failed. power. The plane began to lose speed. Instead of taking manual control and descending below 30,000 feet to restart the engine as recommended in the flight book, the crew maintained a speed of 41,000 with the autopilot engaged and attempted a restart.

Meanwhile, the loss of the outboard motor gave the aircraft asymmetric propulsion. The autopi party attempted to correct this and keep the aircraft level, but as the aircraft continued to brake, it also began to roll to the right. The captain was aware of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid the illusion that you know ê 107 deceleration but not the extent to which the aircraft has entered the starboard bank; his System 1 cue would have been the vestibular reflex—the way the inner ear senses balance and spatial orientation—but because of the plane's trajectory, it felt like it was flying level. His guidance on System 2 would be a look at the horizon and its instruments. The correct procedure called for the use of left rudder to raise the right wing, but his System 2 focused on the airspeed indicator and the first officer's and engineer's efforts to restart the engine. As its edge extended, the plane descended from 37,000 feet into towering clouds that obscured the horizon. The captain disengaged the autopilot and pushed the nose down for more speed, but the aircraft had already banked over 45 degrees and was now inverted and entering an uncontrollable descent. The crew was confused by the situation. They understood that the aircraft was behaving erratically, but they did not realize that they had turned around and were diving. They were no longer able to distinguish propulsion from engines 1-3 and concluded that these engines had also stopped working. The plane's dive was visible on their flight indicators, but the angle was so unlikely that the crew decided the indicators had failed. At 11,000 feet they burst through the clouds, stunned to see them roaring toward the ground. The captain and first officer pulled back hard on the stick, exerting enormous forces on the plane, but it managed to level out. The landing gear hung from the belly of the plane and they lost one of the hydraulic systems, but all four engines came to life and the captain was able to fly on successfully towards San Francisco. The inspection revealed the seriousness of their maneuver. Stresses five times greater than gravity caused the plane's wings to be permanently bent upwards, two landing gear legs were broken, and two landing gear doors and a large section of the rear horizontal stabilizers were torn off.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 108 "Spatial disorientation" is an aviation term for a deadly combination of two elements: losing sight of the horizon and relying on human sensory perception that does not match reality but is so convincing that pilots conclude that the instruments in the cockpit failed. . As Kahneman says, System 1, the instinctive, reflexive system that senses danger and keeps us safe, can be very hard to overturn. Flight 006's first incident, the loss of an engine while flying at altitude, was not considered an emergency, but quickly became one as a result of the captain's actions. Instead of following prescribed procedure and instead of fully utilizing his System 2 analytical resources by monitoring all of his instruments, he focused on restarting the engine and a single flight indicator, airspeed. Then, when things got out of hand, he relied on his senses instead of gauges, and actually tried to build his own narrative of what happened to the plane. There's a long list of delusions to fall prey to (some have scathing names like "tilt," "graveyard spin," and "black hole approach") and websites where you can listen to the cold last words of many combatants who don't understand and dishes. what went wrong in heaven. Spatial disorientation was considered a likely cause of the crash that killed Missouri Governor Mel Carnahan in a thunderstorm one night in October 2000, and a likely cause of the crash that killed John F. Kennedy Jr. with his wife and her sister off Martha's Vineyard on a foggy night in July 1999. Fortunately, the China Airlines incident worked out, but the National Transportation Safety Board's report on that incident reveals how quickly training and professionalism can be overtaken by the System 1 illusion, and this is why we need Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid the illusion of knowledge ê 109 cultivate a disciplined System 2, conscious analysis and reasoning, always monitored by the flight instruments. 3 Illusions and Distortions of Memory Film director Errol Morris, in a series of articles on illusions in the New York Times, quotes social psychologist David Dunning about the human tendency toward "motivated reasoning," or as Dunning puts it, "pure geniuses can talk themselves into a conclusion" sympathetic and denied the truth of inconvenient conclusions. 4 (British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli once said of a political opponent that his conscience was not his guide but his accomplice.) There are many ways in which our judgments of System 1 and System 2 can be misled: Illusions similar to those, many pilots experience, misrepresentations, memory distortions, failure to recognize when a new kind of problem requires a new kind of solution, and a variety of cognitive biases to which we are susceptible. We describe many of these risks here, then suggest measures you can take, such as scanning your cockpit instruments, to help keep your thinking in line with reality.

Our understanding of the world is shaped by a hunger for narrative that stems from our discomfort with ambiguity and random events. When surprising things happen, we look for an explanation. The desire to resolve ambiguity can be surprisingly strong, even when the topic is unimportant. In a study in which participants believed their reading comprehension and anagram solving skills were being assessed, they were exposed to distractions while on a phone call in the background. Some heard only one side of the conversation, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 110 and others have heard both sides. The participants, who did not know that distraction itself was the subject of the study, tried to ignore what they heard in order to focus on reading and solving anagrams. The results showed that eavesdropping on one side of a conversation was more distracting than eavesdropping on both sides, and the content of these partial conversations was later better recalled by unintended eavesdroppers. Why was it so? Presumably, those overhearing half of the conversation were strongly compelled to try to infer the missing half in a way that produced a complete narrative. As the authors point out, the study may help explain why one-sided cell phone conversations in public spaces are so uncomfortable for us, but it also reveals how we are inevitably drawn to saturating the events around us with rational explanations. The discomfort of ambiguity and arbitrariness is just as strong, if not stronger, in our need to rationally understand our own lives. We try to fit the events of our lives into a coherent story that takes into account our circumstances, the things that happen to us, and the choices we make. Each of us has a different narrative, interwoven with many threads from our shared culture and experience of being human, as well as many separate threads that explain individual events from our personal past. All these experiences influence what comes to mind in a given situation and the narrative through which it can be understood: Why no one in my family studied before me. Why my father never made a fortune in business. Why I would never want to work for a company, or maybe why I would never work for myself. We gravitate towards the narratives that best explain our feelings. In this way, narrative and memory become one. The memories we create in a meaningful way will be the ones that are remembered better. Not only does the narrative make sense, but Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid Delusions of Knowledge ê 111 mental frameworks to add meaning to future experiences and information, and in effect shape new memories to fit our established constructions of the world and ourselves. No reader, when asked to explain the choices made under pressure by a character in a novel, can prevent his or her own life experience from clouding her explanation of what must have been going on in the character's inner world. The success of the magician or the politician depends, like the novelist, on the seductive power of the narrative and the audience's voluntary suspension of disbelief. Nowhere is this more evident than in the national political debate, where like-minded people come together online, in community gatherings and in the media to find common purpose and develop the story they believe best explains their sense of how the world works and how they should . and politicians behave. You can see how quickly personal narratives are invoked to explain emotions when you read an article online whose author has argued his position on almost any topic—for example, an article supporting the use of testing as a powerful learning tool. Browse through the comments posted by readers: some sing "Hallelujah" while others struggle to contain their indignation, each drawing on a personal story that either supports or refutes the column's main argument. Psychologists Larry Jacoby, Bob Bjork and Colleen Kelley, summarizing research on the illusions of understanding, competence and memory, write that it is almost impossible to avoid basing one's judgments on subjective experience. Humans give no more credence to an objective record of a past event than to a subjective recollection of it, and we are surprisingly insensitive to how our particular constructions of a situation are unique to ourselves. In this way, the narrative of memory becomes central to our intuition about the judgments we make and the actions we take. 5 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make it stick ê 112 The surprising paradox then is that the fleeting nature of our memory can not only distort our perceptions, but is also crucial to our ability to learn. As you already know, every time we recall a memory, we reinforce the pathways of the mind that lead to that memory, and this ability to reinforce, expand, and change the memory is critical to how we deepen our learning and expand our connections to it , we know and what we could do. Memory shares some similarities with the Google search algorithm in that the more you connect what you learn with what you already know, and the more associations you make with the memory (eg by associating it with a visual image, a place or a larger story), the more mental clues you have to find and retrieve that memory later. This ability extends our agency:

our ability to act and be effective in the world. At the same time, because memory is a shapeshifter that reconciles the competing demands of emotion, suggestion, and narrative, it is good to remain open to the fallibility of your certainties: even your most treasured memories may not reflect events exactly as they happened. Memory can be distorted in many ways. People interpret history in light of their knowledge of the world, creating order where there was no one to create a more logical story.

Memory is reconstruction. We can't remember every aspect of an event, so we remember the elements that have the most emotional meaning for us and fill in the gaps with our own details that match our narrative but may be wrong. People remember things that were suggested but not specified. The literature is full of examples. In one of them, many people reading a section about a troubled girl named Helen Keller mistakenly remembered the phrase "deaf and blind" that appeared in the text. This mistake was rarely made. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid Delusions of Knowledge ê 113 by another group who read the same section about a girl named Carol Harris. 6 Imaginal inflation refers to the tendency of people who, when asked to imagine an event vividly, sometimes, when asked later, come to believe that the event actually happened. Adults who were asked "Have you ever broken a window with your hand?" they were more likely to take a life inventory later to report that they believed this event had occurred during their lifetime. Asking the question appears to have caused them to imagine the event, and the act of imagining it later made them more likely to believe it had happened (compared to the other group who answered the question without first imagining say that it had happened). . Hypothetical events that are vividly imagined can become as embedded in the mind as memories of actual events. For example, when a child is suspected of having been sexually abused and is interviewed and questioned about the matter, the child may imagine the experiences described by the interviewer and later "remember" them as occurring. 7 (Unfortunately, many memories of childhood sexual abuse are completely true, usually reported shortly after the incident.) . In one example, people watched a video of a car driving through a stop sign at an intersection and colliding with another passing car. Those who were later asked to estimate the speed of the vehicles when they "made contact" each gave an average estimate of 32 miles per hour. Those asked to rate the speed at which the two vehicles “collided” into the Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 114 other estimated to average 41 miles per hour. If the speed limit was 30 km/h, asking the question the other way, rather than the first, could lead to the driver being accused of speeding. Of course, the legal system knows the danger of asking "leading questions" (those that encourage a specific answer) of witnesses, but such questions are difficult to avoid entirely because the suggestion can be very subtle. The two cars "actually collided in the present case". 8 Some witnesses to crimes who try to recall them are asked to let their minds roam free, to produce anything that comes to mind, even if it is conjecture. However, the act of guessing about possible events causes people to provide their own misinformation, which, if not corrected, can later be retrieved as memories. This is one of the reasons why hypnosis interrogators cannot testify in court in almost all Canadian states and provinces. The hypnotic interview usually encourages people to think freely and create whatever comes to mind in the hope of eliciting information that would otherwise not have been generated. But this process causes them to produce a lot of misinformation, and research has shown that when they are later tested and instructed to say exactly what they remember of actual events, their guesses under hypnosis cloud their memories of what really happened . In particular, they remember the events they evoked under hypnosis as real experiences, even under conditions (in the laboratory) where it is known that the events in question did not occur. 9 Interference caused by other events can distort memory. Suppose the police interview a witness shortly after a crime has been committed, showing Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid the illusion of knowledge ê 115 images of potential suspects. Time passes, but eventually the police catch the suspect whose photo the witness was looking at. If the witness is now asked to see the depository, he may mistakenly recall one of the suspects whose photo he saw as being present at the crime. A particularly vivid example of a similar process happened to the Australian psychologist Donald M. Thomson. A Sydney woman was watching television at noon when she heard a knock on her door. When she answered, she was attacked, raped and left unconscious. When she woke up and called the police, they came to her aid, learned the description of the assailant and began to search. They saw a Donald Thomson walking down a street in Sydney who matched the description. They arrested him on the spot. It turns out that Thomson had an indisputable alibi - he was interviewed on a live television program at the exact time of the rape. The police did not believe him and mocked him when he was questioned. The story was true though. The woman was watching a program when she heard a knock on the door. The description she gave the police was apparently of a man she had seen on television, Donald Thomson, and not the rapist. Her system 1 response - rapid but sometimes erratic - gave the wrong description, possibly due to her extreme emotional state. 10 What psychologists call the curse of knowledge is our tendency to underestimate how long it will take another person to learn something new or complete a task we have already mastered. Teachers often fall for this illusion – a calculus teacher has it so easy that she can no longer put herself in the position of a student just starting out and struggling with the subject. The curse of knowledge effect is closely related to flashback bias, or what is often called Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 116 the "we knew it all along" effect, where we perceive events after the fact as more predictable than before they occur. Stock pundits will no doubt announce on the evening news why the stock market behaved the way it did that day, even if they could not predict the movements that morning. 11 Stories that sound familiar can give the impression that they know something and are taken for granted. This is one of the reasons why political or advertising claims that are not based on facts but are repeated can gain traction with the public, especially if they have emotional resonance. Something you hear once and hear later carries a warmth of familiarity that can be mistaken for a memory, a shred of something you once knew and can't pinpoint but are willing to believe. In the world of propaganda, this is called the "big lie" technique - even a big lie repeated many times can be accepted as the truth.

Fluidity illusions stem from our tendency to mistake fluidity for text in order to master content. For example, if you read a particularly clear presentation of a difficult concept, you may get the impression that it is actually quite simple, or perhaps even that you have always known it. As mentioned earlier, students who learn by rereading their texts may mistake their fluency with the reread text for an accessible knowledge of the topic and consequently overestimate how well they will perform on the test.

Our memories are also socially influenced and tend to match those around us. If you are in Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoiding Illusions of Knowledge ê 117 When a group recounts a past experience and someone adds an erroneous detail to the story, you will tend to incorporate that detail into your own memory and later recall the experience with the erroneous detail. This process is called "memory conformism" or "social memory contagion":

one person's mistakes can "infect" another person's memory. Of course, social influence is not always bad. If someone recalls details of your shared memory to which you are somewhat hazy, your later memory will be updated to include a more accurate record of an earlier event. 12 In contrast to the social influence effect, people tend to assume that others share their beliefs, a process called the false consensus effect. We tend to overlook the idiosyncratic nature of our personal understanding of the world and interpretation of events, and that ours is different from others. Think back to the last time you were surprised when you and a friend lamented the general state of affairs and discovered that she sees things in a completely different light than you thought the correct view was basic and obvious: climate change, gun control, fracking gas wells — or perhaps something very local, like voting to issue bonds for a school building or opposing the construction of a big-box store in the neighborhood. 13 Reliance on memory is not a reliable indicator of its accuracy. We can have supreme faith in a vivid, almost literal memory of an event, and yet discover that everything is really wrong. National tragedies, such as the assassination of President John Kennedy or the events of September 11, create memories that psychologists call "flash bulbs," named after the vital Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 118 photos we keep: where we were when we got the news, how we found out, how we felt, what we did. These memories are considered indelible, burned into our minds, and it is true that the broad outlines of such disasters, accurately reported in the media, are well remembered, but your memory of your personal circumstances surrounding the events need not necessarily be accurate. There have been several studies of this phenomenon, including a study of the memories of fifteen thousand Americans from the September 11 attacks. In this study, respondents' memory was examined one week after the attacks, again one year later, then again three years and ten years later. Respondents' most emotional memories of their personal information at the time they learned about the attacks are also the ones they trust the most and, paradoxically, the ones that have changed the most over the years compared to other 9/11 memories. 14 Mental Models As we improve in different areas of our lives, we tend to combine the incremental steps required to solve different types of problems. Using the analogy from the previous chapter, you can think of them as something like smartphone apps in the brain. We call them mental models. Two examples from police work are the choreography of a routine traffic stop and movements to take a gun from an attacker at close range. Each of these maneuvers involves a set of perceptions and actions that police can adjust with some conscious thought in response to context and situation. For a barista, the mental model would be the steps and ingredients needed to produce a perfect sixteen-ounce decaf frappuccino. For the emergency department, this is triage and registration.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid illusions about knowledge ê 119 The better you know something, the harder it is to learn it. So says Harvard physicist and educator Eric Mazur. Why? As you become an expert in complex areas, your models in those areas become more and more complex, and the building steps that compose them fade into the background of memory (the curse of knowledge). A physicist, for example, will create a mental library of physics principles that he can use to solve all sorts of problems he encounters in his work: Newton's laws of motion, for example, or the law of conservation of momentum. She will tend to sort problems based on underlying principles, while a novice will group them by similarity of surface features, such as the device being manipulated in the task (pulley, inclined plane, etc.). One day, when she goes to teach an introductory physics class, she explains how a particular problem requires some Newtonian mechanics, forgetting that her students have not yet mastered the basic steps that she had long since combined into one integrated thinking. Model. This professor's presumption that her students will willingly follow something complex that seems basic to her own mind is a metacognitive bias, a misjudgment of the correspondence between what she knows and what her students know. Mazur says that the person who knows best what a student struggles with assimilating new concepts is not the professor, but another student. 15 This problem is illustrated by a very simple experiment, where one person plays a common melody in their head and taps the rhythm with their knuckles, and the other person who hears the rhythmic tap has to guess the melody. Each tune comes from a fixed set of twenty-five, so the statistical chance of guessing it is 4 percent. Significantly, participants who mean the melody estimate that the other person will guess correctly 50 percent of the time, but in fact listeners Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 120 guess right only 2.5 percent of the time, no better than chance. 16 Like Coach Dooley's players memorizing their manuals, we all create mental libraries of countless useful solutions that we can use at any time to help us move from one Saturday game to the next. But these models can also confuse us when we fail to recognize that a new problem that seems familiar is actually something else entirely, and we draw out a solution that doesn't work or makes things not work. worse. Failure to recognize when your solution doesn't match the problem is another form of self-observation that can get you into trouble. Mike Ebersold, a neurosurgeon, was called into the operating room one day to assist a surgical resident. who lost a patient while removing a brain tumor. The usual model of tumor excision requires time, careful work around the growth, a clean margin, sparing the surrounding nerves. But when the growth is in the brain, and if there is bleeding behind it, the pressure on the brain can prove fatal. Instead of taking slow and gentle action, you need to do the opposite, cut the growth out very quickly to let the blood drain away, and then work to repair the bleeding. "You can be a little shy at first before you make a big move," says Mike. "It's not pretty, but patient survival depends on being able to shift gears and do it quickly." Mike helped and the operation was a success. Like a baby calling out for a strange Dada, we need to cultivate the ability to recognize when our mental models aren't working: when a situation that seems familiar is actually different and requires us to reach out for another solution and do something. new.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid illusions of knowledge ê 121 Unqualified and ignorant Incompetent people lack the skills to improve because they cannot distinguish between incompetence and competence.

This phenomenon, of particular interest to metacognition, has been called the Dunning-Kruger effect in honor of the psychologists David Dunning and Justin Kruger. Their research has shown that incompetent people overestimate their own competence and, not seeing the discrepancies between their aspirations and what is desirable, do not see the need to try to improve. (The title of their first article on the subject was "Unskilled and Ignorant".) Dunning and Kruger also showed that incompetent people can be taught to improve their skills by learning the ability to self-assess their own skills. precisely, in short, to make their metacognition more accurate. In a series of studies that proved this finding, they gave students a logic test and asked them to rate their self-efficacy. In the first experiment, the results confirmed expectations that the least competent students were most detached from their abilities: Students who averaged at the twelfth percentile believed that their overall logical reasoning ability had fallen to the 68th percentile. In the second experiment, after taking an initial test and self-assessment, students were shown other students' answers followed by their own and asked to re-estimate the number of test questions they answered correctly. Students who scored in the lower quartile did not rate their performance more accurately after seeing their peers' more competent choices, and indeed tended to overestimate their already inflated assessments of their own abilities. A third experiment investigated whether low-achieving individuals could learn to improve their judgment. Students received ten Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 122 logical reasoning problems and after the test they were asked to evaluate their logical reasoning skills and per mance test. Once again, students in the bottom quartile grossly overestimated their chances. Half of the students then underwent a ten-minute training in logic (how to check the correctness of a syllogism); the other half of the students were given an unrelated task. All students were then asked to re-evaluate how well they did on the test. Now, students in the lower quartile who received the training were much more accurate in estimating the number of questions they got right and how they performed compared to other students. Those in the bottom quartile who did not receive training had a mistaken belief that they had achieved good results. How is it that incompetent people do not learn from experience that they are unqualified? Dunning and Kruger offer several theories. One is that people rarely receive negative feedback about their skills and abilities from others in everyday life, because people don't like delivering bad news.

Even if people get negative feedback, they need to understand exactly why the error occurred. To be successful, everything must go right, but on the other hand, failure can be attributed to a number of external causes: it is easy to blame the tool for what the hand cannot do. Finally, Dunning and Kruger suggest that some people are simply not as good at reading as others are and are therefore less able to see competencies when they see them and therefore less able to make their own comparative assessments. These effects are more likely to occur in some contexts and with some skills than others. In some areas, it can be brutally honest to reveal your incompetence. All the authors remember from childhood when a teacher assigned two boys to pick other children for softball teams.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid illusions of knowledge ê 123 The good players are chosen first, the worst last. You get to know your peers' evaluations of your softball skills in a very public way, so it would be hard for the last player selected to think, "I must be really good at softball." However, most areas of life do not make such a rigorous assessment of ability. 17 In summary, the means by which we navigate the world—Daniel Kahneman's systems 1 and 2—are based on our systems of perception, intuition, memory, and cognition, with all their tics, warts, biases, and flaws. Each of us is an astonishing bundle of perceptual and cognitive abilities that coexist with the seeds of our own undoing. When it comes to science, what we choose depends on our judgment of what works and what doesn't, and we are easily fooled. Our susceptibility to delusions and misjudgments should give us all food for thought, especially advocates of "student-centered learning," a theory currently popular with some parents and teachers. According to this theory, students know best what they need to learn to master a given subject and what pace and methods are best for them. For example, at the Manhattan Free School in East Harlem, which opened in 2008, "students don't get grades, take tests or have to do anything they don't want to do." Brooklyn Free School, which opened in 2004 with a new group of homeschooling families who call themselves "unschoolers," is guided by the principle that what ever fascinates a student will result in the best learning. 18 The intention is glorious. We know that students need to take more control of their own learning by using strategies like the ones we've discussed. For example, they need to test themselves, both to reap the direct benefits of increased retention and to identify what they know and what they don't know to more accurately assess their progress and focus on material Brown, Peter C. et eel. . Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 124 requires more work. However, few students practice these strategies, and those who do will need more than encouragement if they are to practice them effectively: It turns out that even when students understand that recall practice is a better strategy, they often do not last long enough for a lasting benefit. When the students e.g. get a mastery kit, e.g. a stack of foreign vocabulary cards, and given the freedom to decide when to drop a card from the deck because they have learned it, most students drop a card when they get it right. once or twice, much faster than they should. The paradox is that the students who use the least effective learning strategies overestimate their learning the most and, as a result of misplaced confidence, are unwilling to change their habits. The footballer preparing for the game next Saturday does not abandon his intuition, he goes through his plays and mixes them up to discover sharp edges and work them well on the pitch before preparing for the big game.

If this kind of behavior were anything like the norm for students in their colleges today, then self-education would be very effective. But of course the footballer is not self-taught, his training is guided by the coach. Likewise, most students will do better in academic subjects under the guidance of an instructor who knows where improvement is needed and organizes the practice required to achieve it. 19 The answer to illusion and misjudgment is to replace subjective experience as the basis for decisions with a set of objective external measurements so that our judgment matches the real world around us. When we have reliable reference points, such as cockpit instruments, and develop a habit of checking them, we can make good decisions about where to focus our efforts, recognize when we've lost our way, and find our way back. Here are some examples.

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Don't Think You Know ê 125 Tools and Habits to Calibrate Your Judgment. Most importantly, use tests and exercises often to verify what you really know versus what you think you know. Frequent low-stakes quizzes in the classroom help the instructor confirm that students are actually learning as well as they appear to be and reveal areas that need extra attention. Taking cumulative quizzes, as Andy Sobel does in a political economy course, is particularly effective for consolidating knowledge and combining concepts from one part of the course into new material encountered later. As a student, you can use any number of practice techniques to test your mastery for yourself, from answering flashcards to explaining key concepts in your own words and peer instruction (see below). Don't make the mistake of discarding material from the test system when you've already improved it a few times.

If something is important, it must be practiced and practiced again.

And don't focus on the temporary benefits that come from mass exercise. Arrange your tests, diversify your practice, keep your perspective.

Peer Instruction, a learning model developed by Eric Mazur, covers many of the above principles. The material to be covered in class is intended to be read in advance. In class, lecture is interspersed with quick tests that present students with a conceptual question and give them a minute or two to wrestle with it; then in small groups they try to reach agreement on the correct answer. It is Mazur's experience that the process engages the students with the core concepts in the lecture material; revealing students' problems in Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 126 achieving understanding; and allows them to explain their understanding, receive feedback and evaluate their learning compared to other students. Similarly, this process serves as an indicator for the instructor of how well the students are learning the material and in which areas more or less work is needed. Mazur tries to pair students who initially had different answers to a question so they can see a different point of view and try to convince each other who is right. Two more examples of this technique can be found in the profiles of Professors Mary Pat Wenderoth and Michael D. Matthews in Chapter 8. 20 Notice the cues you use to evaluate what you have learned. Whether something feels familiar or fluent is not always a reliable indicator of learning. Your level of ease in finding facts or phrases in a quiz is also not low after encountering them in a lecture or text. (However, easy retrieval after delay is a good indicator of learning.) It is much better to create a mental model of the material that integrates the various ideas throughout the text, combines them with what you already know, and allows you to to draw conclusions. How well you can explain a text is an excellent guide to assessing text comprehension because you have to recall the salient points from memory, put them in your own words and explain why they are important - how they relate to the wider topic.

Instructors should provide corrective feedback and students should request it. In an interview with Errol Morris, psychologist David Dunning argues that the path to self-examination is through other people. “So it really depends on what kind of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid the illusion of knowledge ê 127 feedback you receive. Does the world tell you good things? Does the world reward you in the way you expect a competent person to? If you observe other people, you often find that there are different ways of doing things; there are better ways to do things. "I'm not as good as I thought, but I have to work on something." Think of the kids running for the softball team - would you be selected? 21 In many areas, the practice of peer review functions as an external yardstick that provides feedback on one's own work. Most medical practice groups hold morbidity/mortality conferences and if a doctor has a poor patient condition it will be presented there. Other doctors will pick it apart or say, "You did well, it was just a bad situation." Mike Ebersold argues that people in his field should practice as part of a group. "If there are other neurosurgeons around you, that's a safeguard. If you do something that's unacceptable, they'll hold you to account." In many situations, your judgment and learning is calibrated by working with a more experienced partner: airline first officers with captains, novices with experienced officers, residents with experienced surgeons. The apprenticeship model is very ancient in human experience, as novices (whether cobblers or lawyers) have traditionally learned their craft from experienced practitioners. In other situations, teams consist of people with complementary areas of expertise. When doctors implant medical devices such as pacemakers and nerve stimulators of the type to treat urinary incontinence or symptoms of Parkinson's disease, the manufacturer has a product representative directly in the operating room with the surgeon. The representative saw many Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 128 surgeries with the device, knows the types of patients who will benefit from it, knows the contraindications and side effects, and has a hotline for the company's engineers and clinicians. The representative follows the surgery to make sure the device is implanted in the correct position, the electrodes are inserted at the correct depth, and so on. Every part of the team benefits. The patient is sure of a correct and successful procedure. The doctor has access to product knowledge and troubleshooting at his fingertips. And the company makes sure that its products are used correctly.

Training that simulates the types of demands and changing conditions that can be expected in the real world helps learners and educators assess skills and focus on areas where understanding or competence needs to be improved. Take police work, where many different types of simulation are used in training. In the case of weapons training, these are often video-based scenarios, with a large screen set up at one end of the room, on which are placed a number of props that mimic the situation of an officer entering the scene armed with a firearm. weapons that have been modified to interact with the film. Lt. Catherine Johnson of the Minneapolis Police Department describes several such simulations she was trained in: One was a traffic stop. In the training room, there was a screen at one end, and various objects around it - a large blue mailbox, a fire hydrant, a door - that could be used as a shield against what was happening on the screen. I remember walking towards the screen and the video simulating my approach to the car as I did this, very realistically, and suddenly the trunk popped out and the guy with the shotgun stood up and shot me.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Avoid the Illusion of Knowledge ê 129 To this day, every time I go to my car at a stop, I press hard on the trunk to make sure it's not open. And it is because of this one scenario in the training I went through. Another weapon sim was a house call that starts the moment I approach the mansion and there's a guy on the porch. As soon as I show up, I see he has a gun in his hand. I order him to drop it and the first thing he does is turn around and walk away. At this point I'm thinking I can't shoot this guy in the back and there's no one out there that looks threatened so what do I do? By the time it takes me to consider shooting this guy, he's already turned and shot me. Because my reaction was slower than his action. Whenever action precedes reaction. This is a mantra drilled into our minds. 22 Weapons simulations can be conducted in a variety of ways, both lethal and peaceful. There are no right or wrong answers to this situation, as there is a complex set of factors, some of which, such as whether the person on the porch has a criminal record, may be known to the officer upon entering the building. scene. At the end, the officer conducts a briefing with his coach to get feedback. Training isn't just about technique, it's about thinking clearly and having the right reflexes - visual and verbal cues to look out for, possible outcomes, clarity around proper use of lethal force and finding words afterwards that will account for those actions , you did in an emergency situation. The simulation is not perfect. Johnson describes how officers are trained to take a gun from an attacker at close range, a maneuver they practice by role-playing with another officer.

Requires quickness and dexterity: striking the attacker's wrist with one hand to break his grip while grabbing Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 130 gun free with one second. This is a move that officers used to perfect by repeating, taking the gun, handing it back and taking it again. Until one of their officers, called into the field, took the gun from the attacker and gave it back. To their mutual amazement, the officer managed to grab the gun again and grab it. The training regimen broke with the cardinal principle that you should practice while you play because you want to play while you practice. Sometimes the most powerful feedback to calibrate your sense of what you do and don't know is the mistakes you make in the field, provided you live through them and are open to learning. 23 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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131 All disciples are the fiddler, and all ascend to a fantastic place, as Francis Bacon tells us, by a winding staircase. 1 Consider the story of Bruce Hendry, born in 1942, raised on the Mississippi River north of Minneapolis by a mechanic and a housewife, just another scrappy-kneed American with a fire in his belly to get rich. When we talk about self-made men, the story often sounds familiar. That's not the story. Bruce Hendry is self-sufficient, but the story is up a winding staircase of how he found his way, which helps us understand the differences in how we learn. The idea that individuals have different learning styles has been around long enough to become part of the folklore of educational practice and an integral part of how many people see themselves. The basic assumption is that people perceive and process new information in different ways: for example, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 132 Some people learn better from visual materials, while others learn better from written text or audio materials. Furthermore, the theory is that people who receive instructions in a way that does not match their learning style are at a disadvantage in the learning process. In this chapter, we recognize that everyone has learning preferences, but we are not convinced that you learn better if the way you teach matches those preferences. However, there are other types of learning differences that matter. First, Bruce's story to help frame our argument. Active learning from the start Part of Bruce's secret is how he feels responsible for Bruce from an early age. When he was two years old, his mother, Doris, told him he couldn't cross the road because he might get hit by a car. Every day Bruce crossed the street and every day Doris beat him. "He was born aggressive," Doris' friends said. At the age of eight, he bought a string at a hardware store for a shilling, cut it up and sold it in nickel pieces. At ten o'clock he was given a tour of the newspapers. At eleven o'clock the caddy added. At the age of twelve, he filled his pocket with $30 in savings, crept out his bedroom window with an empty suitcase before dawn and hitchhiked 255 miles to Aberdeen, South Dakota. He stocked up on black cats, cherry bombs and Roman candles, illegal in Minnesota, and hitchhiked home before dinner. For the next week, Doris couldn't understand why all the paper boys would come in for a few minutes and leave. Bruce won the gold, but the paper distribution supervisor found out and gave Bruce Sr. The father told his son that if he did it again, he would get the lick of life. The following summer, Bruce repeated the shopping trip and got the promised candy.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Go beyond learning styles ê 133 "It was worth it," he says. 2 He was thirteen and had learned the lesson of high demand and low supply. According to Bruce, rich people were probably not smarter than him, they just had knowledge that he lacked.

Looking at how he acquired the knowledge he sought will illustrate some of the differences in learning that matter. One of them, of course, is taking control of his own education, a habit Bruce has displayed since the age of two with remarkable persistence over the years. There are other signaling behaviors. He throws himself into one pattern after another, and he draws experiences that improve his concentration and judgement.

He combines what he has learned into mental investment models, which he then uses to evaluate more complex opportunities and weed through the weeds, picking out meaningful details from a mass of irrelevant information to ultimately make money. Psychologists call this behavior "rule learning" and "structure building". People who habitually derive basic principles or rules from new experiences are more successful in learning than those who take their experiences at face value, failing to draw conclusions that can be applied later in similar situations. Similarly, people who extract the most important concepts from the less important information they encounter in new material, and who combine these key ideas into a mental structure, are more successful at learning than those who cannot separate the wheat from the chaff and understand , how wheat is made into flour. .

When he was just a teenager, Bruce saw a flyer advertising wooded lake lots in central Minnesota. When he was informed that no one had ever lost money in real estate, he bought one. Over the next four years, with occasional help from his father, he built a house on it, confronting each step of the process at Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make it hold ê 134 at a time by inventing it yourself or finding someone to show him how. To dig the basement, he borrowed a trailer and hitched it to his '49 Hudson. He paid 50 cents for each load his friends dug, shovel by shovel, and then charged the owner of a nearby lot, who needed a dollar for it. He learned to lay bricks from a friend whose father worked in the cement industry and then laid the foundation himself. He learned to frame walls from a salesman on a load of lumber. He connected the house and connected it in the same way, the wide-eyed kid asked how to do such a thing.

"The electrical inspector rejected it," Bruce recalls. "At the time I thought it was because they wanted a union to do it, so I asked a union man to come from the cities and redo all my wiring. Looking back, I'm sure what I did was completely dangerous.” He was nineteen and a college student that summer when he sold his house for a down payment on a four-story apartment in Minneapolis. It was a simple assumption: Four apartments would generate four postal checks month after month. Soon, in addition to his university studies, he was managing rental property, paying off the mortgage, taking midnight calls about the sewer system, raising rents and losing tenants, trying to fill empty apartments and pouring in more money. He learned how to turn a vacant lot into a house and a house into an apartment complex, but in the end the lesson proved bitter and brought more headaches than rewards. He sold a four-story house and gave up real estate for the next two decades. After college, Bruce took a job at Kodak as a microfilm salesman. In his third year, he was one of the top five salespeople in the country. That was the year he found out how much his branch manager made: less than Bruce as a salesman, if you include the company car and the expense account. Better to be a rainmaker than a manager:

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Moving Beyond Learning Styles ê 135 another lesson learned, another step up Bruce's winding staircase.

He resigned to join a brokerage firm and sell stocks. From this new point of view, several lessons: "If I contributed a dollar in trading commissions to the company, half went to the company and half of the other half went to the company. The IRS. To make real money, I had to focus more on investing my own money and less on earning commission on sales.” Oops, another lesson:

investing in stocks is risky. He lost as much investing his own money as he earned commissions selling investments to his clients. "You have no control over the mistakes. If a stock is down 50 percent, it has to go up 100 percent to break even. One hundred percent is much harder to gain than fifty to lose! More accumulated knowledge. He bided his time and looked around for the insight he was looking for Enter Leppla.

As Bruce says, Leppla was just a guy roaming the Minneapolis skyline back then, from one investment firm to another, talking business and giving advice. One day he told Bruce about some of the company's distressed bonds that were selling at 22 cents on the dollar. “There was 22 basis points of unpaid interest on those bonds,” Bruce recalls, “so when the company came out of bankruptcy, you'd charge interest—in other words, 100 percent of the investment cost...and you'd still have the bond paid off. was free money. "I didn't buy any," says Bruce. "But I saw it, and it came out exactly as Sam predicted. So I called him and said, "Can you come down and tell me what you're doing?" Leppla taught Bruce a more complex understanding of the relationship between price, supply, demand and value than he had learned from a suitcase full of remakes. Leppli's modus operandi was taken from the following principle. When a company gets into trouble, the first claim on its assets does not belong to Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 136 to its owners, shareholders, but also creditors: suppliers and bondholders. There is a pecking order in bonds. The bonds that are paid first are called senior bonds. Any remaining assets after the redemption of the senior bonds are allocated to the repayment of the senior bonds.

Secondary bonds of a troubled company become cheap if investors fear that there will not be enough assets left to cover their value, but investor fear, laziness and ignorance can drive bond prices far below the value of the underlying asset. If you can determine the true value and know the price of the bond, you can invest with very low risk. That's the kind of knowledge Bruce was looking for.

Florida real estate funds were in trouble at the time, so Sam and Bruce began researching them and buying where they could see that resale prices had depressed the underlying values significantly. "We bought them for $5 and sold them for $50. Everything we bought made money." They had a good run, but market prices caught up with values and they soon needed another idea. By this time, the Eastern Railroad was bankrupt and the federal government bought their assets, creating Conrail and Amtrak. As Bruce says, "One day Sam said, 'Railroads go out of business every fifty years and nobody knows anything about them. They're very complex and take years to work out.' So we found a guy who knew about the railroad. Barney Donahue. Barney was a former IRS agent and railroad enthusiast. If you've ever met a true rail lover, they think it, they breathe it, they can tell you the weight of the rails, and they can give you the numbers of the locomotives. He was one of those guys. The main premise of their investment model was to discover more than other investors knew about residual assets and the order in which bonds should be repaid. Armed with the right knowledge, they could choose bonds with lower prices that would have the best chance of repayment. Donahue reviewed Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Get Beyond Learning Styles ê 137 different railroads and decided it was best to invest in the Erie Lackawanna since it had advanced equipment at the time it filed for bankruptcy. Hendry, Leppla and Donahue dove in to take a closer look. They drove the entire length of the Erie track to check its condition. They counted the remaining equipment, checked its condition, and consulted Moody's shipping instructions to calculate values. “Just do the math: how much is an engine worth?

Abox car? A kilometer track? Erie issued fifteen different bonds during its 150 years of operation, and each bond's value was based in part on where it ranked relative to the others. Bruce's research uncovered a small document in which financial institutions agreed on the order in which bonds would be paid after liquidation of assets. With a fixed value of the company's assets, liabilities and bond structure, they knew how much each class of bond was worth. The bondholders who didn't do their homework were in the dark. Junior bonds were sold at massively discounted prices because they were so far down the food chain that investors doubted they would ever see their money. Bruce's calculations suggested otherwise and he bought. It is a longer story than we have space to tell. Railroad bankruptcy is an amazingly complicated business. Bruce is committed to understanding the entire process better than anyone else. Then he knocked on the door, challenged the good old power structure that governed the proceedings, and finally succeeded in being appointed by the courts as chairman of the committee representing the interests of the bondholders in the bankruptcy process. When Erie emerged from bankruptcy two years later, he became the company's president and CEO. He hired Barney Donahue to run it. Hendry, Donahue and the board were led by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 138 had outlived the company through the remaining lawsuits, and when the dust settled, Bruce's bonds were paying twice the face value, twenty times what he was paying for some of the younger bonds he had bought. Erie Lackawanna, in all its complexity, and David vs. Goliath, was just the kind of mess that became Bruce Hendry's daily bread: finding a company in trouble, rummaging through its assets and liabilities, reading the fine print of credit obligations, looking at the industry and where things are moving in the right direction, understand the legal process and go into it armed with a pretty good idea of how things will play out. There are tales of other extraordinary conquests. He took control of Kaiser Steel, stopped liquidation, brought it out of bankruptcy as CEO and received a 2 percent stake in the new company. He stood up for the collapse of First RepublicBank of Texas and came out the other side with a 600 percent return on some of his initial investments in the company. When the manufacturers stopped making railroad freight cars because they had an oversupply, Bruce bought the last 1,000 cars built, raised 20 percent of his investment from leases that the railroads were obligated to honor, and then sold the cars a year later when they was in short supply and got a good price. The story of Hendry's rise to power is both familiar and peculiar; familiar with the nature of exploration and particularly the way Bruce "goes to school" with his ventures, building his own set of rules for what makes an investment opportunity attractive, combining the rules into a template, and then finding new and different ways in which its application. When asked how he explains his success, the lessons he cites are deceptively simple: go where there is no competition, dig deep, ask the right questions, see the big picture, get Brown, Peter C. cop. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Going beyond learning styles 139 risks, be honest. But these explanations are not very satisfactory.

Behind them is a more interesting story that we deduced by reading between the lines: how he came to that conclusion, what knowledge he needed, and how he then pursued it; how early mistakes helped sow acute judgment; and how he has developed a nose for value where others can only sense trouble. His gift for spotting value seems amazing. His stories bring to mind the child who wakes up on his fourth birthday to find a huge pile of manure in the yard, dances around it and shouts, "I'm pretty sure there's a pony out there somewhere!" All people are different, this is a truth we quickly notice as children comparing ourselves to siblings. You can see it in the elementary school, on the sports field, in the meeting room. Even if we shared Bruce Hendry's desire and determination, even if we took his advice to heart, how many of us would learn the art of knowing which pony is in which pile? As Bruce's story shows, some learning differences matter more than others. But what differences? We will cover that later in this chapter.

One difference that seems to matter a lot is how you see yourself and your abilities. As the maxim goes, "Whether you think you can or you think you can't, you're right." Carol Dweck's work, described in Chapter 7, greatly supports this belief. Similarly, a Fortune article from a few years back recounts, in apparent contradiction, stories of dyslexic people achieving high scores in business and other fields despite learning disabilities. Richard Branson of Virgin Records and Virgin Atlantic Airways left school at 16 to start and run billion-dollar businesses; Diane Swonk is one of the best economic forecasters in the United States; Craig Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 140 McCaw is a pioneer in the mobile phone industry; Paul Orfalea founded Kinko's. Those who achieved success and others, when asked about it, told their stories of overcoming adversity. They all had problems in school and with accepted learning methods, most were mislabeled as low IQ, some were held back or assigned to special education classes, and almost all were supported by parents, guidance counselors, and mentors who believed in them.

Branson recalled: "I think at some point I decided it was better to be dyslexic than stupid." In short, Branson's personal story of uniqueness. 3 The stories we create to understand ourselves become the stories of our lives, explaining the events and choices that have brought us to where we are: what I'm good at, what I love most, and where I'm going there. If you're one of the last kids on the sidelines when softball teams are picked, the way you understand your place in the world probably changes a bit, shaping your sense of ability and the next paths you choose. What you tell yourself about your abilities plays a role in shaping the way you learn and achieve—for example, how hard you try and your tolerance for taking risks and your willingness to persevere in the face of difficulties. But skill differences and the ability to turn new knowledge into building blocks for further learning also shape your paths to success. For example, your sophistication in softball depends on a constellation of different skills, such as the ability to hit the ball, run around the bases, field, and throw the ball. Furthermore, skills on the field are not a prerequisite for becoming a sports star in another capacity. Many of the best managers and coaches in professional sports were mediocre or weak players, but there were times when they were exceptional students of their game. Although Tony LaRussa's career as a baseball player was short and unremarkable, he managed football teams with care – Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Go beyond learning styles ê 141 skilled success. When he retired with six American and National League championships and three World Series titles, he was hailed as one of the greatest managers of all time. Each of us has a large basket of resources in the form of talents, before knowledge, intelligence, interests and a sense of personal power that shape the way we learn and overcome our shortcomings. Some of these differences are significant—for example, our ability to extract basic principles from new experiences and convert new knowledge into mental structures. Other differences that we might think matter a lot, such as verbal or visual learning styles, actually don't.

On any list of differences that matter most to learning, fluency and literacy would be at or near the top. While some types of difficulty that require increased cognitive effort can enhance learning, not all difficulties we face have this effect. If the extra effort required to overcome the deficit does not contribute to more effective learning, it is not desirable. An example is the poor reader who cannot follow the thread of the text when they have to decipher individual words in a sentence. Such is the case with dyslexia, and although dyslexia is not the only cause of reading difficulties, it is one of the most common and is estimated to affect around 15 percent of the population. This is due to the abnormal development of neurons during pregnancy that impairs the ability to read by disrupting the brain's ability to match letters with the sounds they make, which is essential for word recognition. People do not overcome dyslexia, but with help they can learn to work with the problems it creates. The most successful programs emphasize the practice of manipulating phonemes, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 142 build vocabulary, increase comprehension and improve reading. Neuroscientists and psychologists emphasize the importance of diagnosing dyslexia early and working with children before third grade, when the brain is still quite plastic and potentially more plastic, making it possible to reroute neural circuits. Dyslexia is much more common among inmates than the general population, as a result of a series of incorrect turns that often begin when children who cannot read fall into a pattern of school failure and develop low self-esteem. Some turn to intimidation or other forms of antisocial behavior to compensate, and this strategy, if left untreated, can turn into crime. Although it is difficult for dyslexic students to acquire basic reading skills, and this defect can create a constellation of other learning disabilities, the highly educated people interviewed for the Fortune article say that some dyslexics seem to possess or develop a greater capacity for creativity and problem. solve, whether as a result of their neural connection or having to find ways to compensate for your disability. To be successful, many of those interviewed said they had to learn from an early age how to capture the big picture instead of struggling to decipher the component parts, how to think outside the box, how to act strategically, and how to manage risk-taking - essential skills that, once acquired, gave them a decisive advantage later in their careers. Some of these skills may actually have neurological origins. Experiments conducted by Gadi Geiger and Jerome Lettvin of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have shown that people with dyslexia are poor at interpreting information in their visual field compared to non-dyslexics. However, they far surpass others in their ability to interpret information from peripheral vision, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Go beyond learning styles ê 143 by proposing that the superior ability to grasp the big picture may be rooted in the brain's synaptic wiring. 4 There is an extensive literature on dyslexia, which we will not delve into here except to acknowledge that certain neurological differences can make a big difference in the way we learn, and for some subsets of these people the combination of high motivation, focus and persistent personality. and compensatory skills or "intelligence" enabled them to develop.

Belief in the credo of learning styles is ubiquitous. It is recommended that students' learning styles be assessed at all levels of education, and teachers are encouraged to offer classroom materials in a variety of ways so that each student can use them in the way they are best equipped to learn. The theory of learning styles has taken root in the development of management, as well as professional and occupational settings, including the training of military pilots, health workers, municipal police and more. A 2004 survey report for the UK's Learning and Skills Research Center compares over seventy different learning style theories on the market today, each with associated assessment tools to diagnose a particular style in an individual. The authors of the report describe the providers of these instruments as an industry plagued by vested interests, highlighting a "roll of conflicting claims" and expressing concern about the temptation to classify, label and stereotype individuals. The authors recount an incident at a conference in which a student who had completed an assessment tool said, "I learned that I'm a poor auditory, kinesthetic learner. So there's no point in me reading a book or listening to someone in more than a few minutes.” 5 The fallacy of this Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 144 applications are more. This has no scientific backing and instills a destructive, incorrect perception of diminished potential. Despite the enormous number and diversity of models of learning styles, if you narrow the field to those that are most widely accepted, you will still not find a consistent theoretical pattern. The VARK approach, advocated by Neil Fleming, differentiates people according to whether they prefer to learn through experiences that are primarily visual, auditory, reading, or kinesthetic (ie, moving, touching, and actively exploring). According to Fleming, VARK describes only one aspect of a person's learning style, which consists entirely of eighteen different dimensions, including preferences for temperature, light, food intake, biorhythms, and working with others versus working alone. Other theories and materials on learning styles are based on quite different dimensions. A widely used inventory, based on the work of Kenneth Dunn and Rita Dunn, assesses six different aspects of a person's learning style: environmental, emotional, sociological, perceptual, physiological, and psychological. Still other models evaluate styles along dimensions such as: Concrete vs. abstract perceptual styles Active experimentation vs. reflective observation Methods for data processing Random vs. sequential organizational styles. whether their styles are mainly "activist", "reflective", "theorist" or "pragmatist" and improve in areas where they score low to become more versatile learners. The simple fact that different theories cover such wildly divergent dimensions raises concerns about their Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Go beyond learning styles ê 145 science basics. While it is true that most of us have strong preferences for how we like to learn new material, the premise of learning styles is that we learn better when the presentation matches a particular style that the individual is best able to learn. This is a critical theorem. In 2008, cognitive psychologists Harold Pashler, Mark McDaniel, Doug Rohrer, and Bob Bjork were instructed to conduct a review to determine whether this critical claim is supported by scientific evidence. The team decided to answer two questions. First, what kinds of evidence do institutions need to justify basing their teaching styles on assessments of student or staff learning styles? For the results to be reliable, the team determined that the study needed to have several characteristics. Initially, students must be divided into groups according to their learning styles. They are then randomly assigned to different classrooms where they teach the same material but present it through different teaching methods. After this, all students must take the same test.

The test must demonstrate that students with a particular learning style (eg, visual learners) performed best when taught in their own (visual) learning style compared to those taught in a different (auditory) style; in addition, it must be shown that other types of students benefit more from their teaching style than from another style (auditory students learn better from auditory than from visual presentation). The team's second question was whether such evidence exists. The answer was no. They found very few studies designed to test the validity of the theory of learning styles in education, and found that virtually none support it and several strongly refute it. Moreover, their review showed that it is more important that the way of teaching corresponds to the nature of the subject, such as Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 146 taught: visual instructions for geometry and geography, verbal instructions for poetry and so on. When the teaching style matches the nature of the content, all students learn better, regardless of different preferences in how the material is taught. The fact that there is no evidence to support the theory of learning styles does not mean that all theories are wrong. Learning style theories take many forms. Some may be up to date. But if so, we can't know which one: since the number of rigorous studies is very small, the research base doesn't exist to answer that question. Based on their findings, Pashler and colleagues argued that the evidence currently available does not justify the enormous investment of time and money that would be required to assess students and restructure instruction for learning styles. Until such evidence is presented, it makes more sense to emphasize instructional techniques, such as those presented in this book, that have been proven by research to be beneficial to students regardless of their stylistic preferences. 6 Effective Intelligence Intelligence is the difference in learning, we know it matters, but what exactly is it? Every human society has a concept that corresponds to the idea of intelligence in our culture. The problem of how to define and measure intelligence in a way that takes into account a person's intellectual power and provides a reliable indicator of his potential has been with us for over a century, and psychologists have attempted to measure this construct since the beginning of the 20th century. . Today's psychologists generally accept that individuals have at least two types of intelligence. Fluid intelligence is the ability to reason, see connections, think abstractly and store information. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Go beyond learning styles ê 147 when working on a problem; crystallized intelligence is the accumulated knowledge about the world and mental procedures or models that we have developed based on previous learning and experience. Together, these two types of intelligence enable us to learn, reason, and solve problems. 7 Traditionally, IQ tests have been used to measure the logical and verbal potential of individuals. These tests measure IQ, which is the ratio of mental age to physical age, times 100. This means that an eight-year-old who can solve problems on a test that most ten-year-olds can solve has an IQ of 125 ( 10 divided by 8, times 100). IQ was once thought to be constant from birth, but traditional notions of intellectual ability are being challenged. An opposing concept put forward by psychologist Howard Gardner to explain the wide variety of human abilities is the hypothesis that people have as many as eight different types of intelligence: Logical-mathematical intelligence: the ability to think critically, work with numbers and abstractions, and the like ; Spatial intelligence: three-dimensional judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye; Linguistic intelligence: the ability to work with words and language; Kinesthetic intelligence: physical fitness and body control; Musical intelligence: sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones and music; Interpersonal intelligence: the ability to "read" other people and work effectively with them; Intrapersonal intelligence: the ability to understand oneself and accurately assess one's own knowledge, abilities and effectiveness; Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 148 Naturalistic Intelligence: the ability to discern and relate to one's natural surroundings (eg, the kind of intelligence called upon by a gardener, hunter, or cook). Gardner's ideas are attractive for many reasons, not least because they attempt to explain human differences that we can observe but cannot explain with modern Western definitions of intelligence that focus on linguistic and logical abilities. As with the theory of learning styles, the multiple intelligences model has helped teachers differentiate the types of learning experiences they offer. Unlike learning styles, which can have the perverse effect of making individuals perceive their learning abilities as limited, the theory of multiple intelligences raises the level of tool diversity in our original toolbox. What both theories lack is a basis for empirical verification, a problem Gardner himself acknowledges when he admits that determining one's own mix of intelligence is more art than science. 8 While Gardner helps expand our concept of intelligence, psychologist Robert J. Sternberg helps re-distill it.

Instead of eight intelligences, Sternberg's model suggests three: analytical, creative and practical. Furthermore, unlike Gardner's theory, Sternberg's theory is supported by empirical research. A study by Sternberg, who was particularly interested in the question of how we measure intelligence, was conducted in rural Kenya, where he and his colleagues looked at children's informal knowledge of herbal remedies. The regular use of these drugs is an important part of the daily life of Kenyans. This knowledge is not taught in schools or assessed by tests, but children who can recognize herbs and know their correct uses and dosages are better suited to succeed in their environment than children without this knowledge. The children who performed best on tests of this native informal knowledge performed worst compared to their peers on tests of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Going beyond learning styles ê 149 formal academic subjects that were taught in school and, in Sternberg's words, seemed "stupid" by formal test measurements. How to reconcile the differences? Sternberg suggests that the children who excelled in local knowledge came from families that valued such practical knowledge more than the families of children who excelled in the sciences taught at school. Children whose backgrounds favored one type of learning over another (practical over academic in the case of families who taught their children herbs) were at a lower level of knowledge in academic areas not emphasized by their environment. Other families placed more emphasis on analytical (school) information and less on practical herbal knowledge. There are two important ideas here. First, traditional measures of intelligence failed to account for environmental differences; there is no reason to suspect that children who have excelled in informal, local knowledge cannot match or even surpass their peers in academic achievement when given the right opportunities. Second, the mastery of academic subjects is still developing for children whose backgrounds emphasized indigenous knowledge. According to Sternberg, we are all in the process of developing expertise, and any test that only measures what we know at a given time is a static measurement that tells us nothing about our potential in the field that the test is measuring. Two other short stories that Sternberg cites are useful here.

One of them is a series of studies of orphans in Brazil, who must learn to start and run street businesses if they want to survive. The motivation is high; if they turn to theft as a means of sustenance, they risk conflict with the death squads.

The children who can handle the math required to run a successful business cannot when the problems are presented abstractly, written on paper and pencil. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 150 format. Sternberg argues that this result makes sense when viewed from an expertise-developing point of view: Children live in an environment that emphasizes practical rather than academic skills, and it is the practical demands that determine the content and form of learning. 10 The second story involves seasoned experienced horse racing handicappers who develop highly complex mental models for betting on horses, but who measure up only average on standard IQ tests. Their models of impairment were compared with models developed by less experienced disabled people of similar IQ.

Handicap involves comparing horses on a wide variety of variables for each horse, such as his lifetime earnings, his lifetime speed, the races in which he earned money, jockey skills in the current race and a dozen characteristics for each of his previous races. To predict the speed at which a horse will run the final quarter mile, experts relied on a complex mental model involving as many as seven variables. The study concluded that IQ is not related to disabled ability, and "whatever the IQ test measures, it is not the ability to engage in cognitively complex forms of multidimensional reasoning." 11 Into this void Robert Sternberg introduced his three-part theory of successful intelligence. Analytical intelligence is our ability to perform problem-solving tasks, such as those typically included in tests; creative intelligence is our ability to synthesize and apply existing knowledge and skills to deal with new and unusual situations; practical intelligence is our ability to adapt to everyday life - to understand what needs to be done in certain circumstances and then do it; what we call street smarts.

Different cultures and learning situations use these intelligences differently, and much of what is required for success in a particular situation is not measured by standardized IQ or aptitude tests, which can miss key competencies.

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Going beyond learning styles ê 151 Dynamic tests Robert Sternberg and Elena Grigorenko proposed the use of tests to dynamically assess skills.

Sternberg's concept of developing expertise is that with continued experience in a field, we always move from a lower level of competence to a higher one. Its concept is also that standardized tests cannot accurately assess our potential because what they reveal is limited to a static report of where we are on the learning continuum at the time the test is taken. Paralleling Sternberg's three-part intelligence model, he and Grigorenko proposed moving away from static testing and replacing it with what they call dynamic testing: state determination; refocusing science on low persuasion areas; additional tests to measure improvement and refocus learning to continually improve knowledge. So the test may assess weakness, but instead of assuming that weakness indicates a permanent disability, it interprets it as a lack of skill or knowledge that can be remedied. Dynamic testing has two advantages over standard testing. It focuses student and teacher on areas to be addressed rather than areas of performance, and the ability to measure a student's progress from one test to another provides a more accurate measure of their learning potential. Dynamic testing does not assume the need to adapt to some fixed learning constraints, but offers an assessment of how far a person's knowledge or skills are and how to move forward to succeed: what do I need to learn to improve? This means that where aptitude tests and most learning style theories tend to highlight our strengths and encourage us to focus on them, dynamic testing helps us discover our weaknesses and improve them.

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Make it stick ê 152 In the school of life, failure experiences show us where we need to improve. We can avoid similar challenges in the future or redouble our efforts to meet them and expand our capacity and knowledge. Bruce Hendry's experience investing in rental properties and the stock market was a failure, and the lessons he learned were important parts of his education: Be skeptical when someone tries to sell you something, ask the right questions, and find out how you will find answers. It is the development of specialist knowledge. Dynamic testing consists of three phases.

Step 1: Some kind of test—like an experience or a paper exam—shows me where I lack knowledge or skills.

Step 2: I dedicate myself to becoming more competent by using reflection, practice, distance, and other effective learning techniques.

Step 3: I reassess myself and notice what is working better now, but also, and perhaps most importantly, what I still need to work on.

When we take our first steps as toddlers, we engage in dynamic tests. When you write your first story, you send it to a group of writers for feedback, revise and bring it back, you participate in dynamic tests, you learn the craft of a writer, and you discover your potential. . The upper limits of your ability in any cognitive or manual skill may be set by factors beyond your control, such as your intelligence and the natural limits of your abilities, but most of us can learn to perform closer to our full potential on most areas, discovers our weaknesses and works to eliminate them. 12 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Going beyond learning styles ê 153 Building Structure There seem to be cognitive differences in the way we learn, though not the kind advocated by learning style advocates. One of these differences is the aforementioned idea that psychologists call structure building: the act of extracting the most salient ideas and constructing a coherent mental framework from them when we encounter new material. These frameworks are sometimes called mental models or mental maps. Builders with high structural ability learn new material better than builders with low structure. The latter have difficulty discarding irrelevant or competing information and, as a result, tend to hold on to too many concepts to be condensed into a useful model (or overall structure) that can serve as a basis for further learning. . The theory of building a structure is somewhat similar to a village built from Lego blocks. Let's say you're taking a survey course on a new topic. You start with a manual full of ideas and begin to build a coherent mental model of the knowledge they contain. In our Lego analogy, you start with a box full of Lego bricks and start building the city depicted on the lid of the box. You throw the pieces out and put them in a bunch of piles. First, place the streets and sidewalks that define the perimeter of the city and the individual locations within it. Then sort the rest of the objects by the objects they consist of: apartment complex, school, hospital, stadium, mall, fire station. Each of these elements is like a central idea in a textbook, and each takes on more form and nuance as the added elements click into place. Together, these central ideas form the larger structure of the village. Now let's assume that your brother has already used this Lego set and puts some pieces from another set in the box.

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Make it Stick ê 154 Once you've found the pieces, some of them may not fit your blocks and you can put them aside as you don't need them. Or you may find that some of the new elements can be used to form a substructure of an existing building block, giving it more depth and definition (porches, decks and back decks as substructures for apartments; streetlights, fire hydrants and boulevard trees as substructures for streets ). You are happy to add these elements to your village, even if the original designers of the set did not plan for such things. Highly developed structure builders develop the ability to identify basic concepts and their central building blocks, and to sort new information based on whether it adds to the larger structure and one's knowledge, or is redundant and can be set aside. Conversely, low-level structure builders have difficulty establishing and holding onto an overall structure and knowing what information should fit into it and what information should be discarded. Building structure is a form of conscious and unconscious discipline:

things fit or not; adds nuance, capacity and meaning, or obscures and overloads. A simpler analogy might be a friend who wants to tell you a rare story about this four-year-old boy she knows: she mentions who the mother is, how they became friends in their book club, and finally mentions that the mother per coincidentally, the boy's birthday delivered a big load of fertilizer for her garden - mom is a great gardener, her eggplants took the ribbon at the county fair and got her an interview on morning radio, and she gets her shit from the widow at your church who raises Clydesdale horses and whose son is married - and so on and so forth. Your friend cannot extract the main ideas from the blizzard of irrelevant associations, and the listener loses the story. History is also structure.

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Going beyond learning styles ê 155 Our understanding of structuring as a cognitive difference in learning is still in its early stages: is structuring the result of a faulty cognitive mechanism, or is structuring a skill that some people acquire naturally and others must learn? We know that when questions are embedded in the text to help the reader focus on the main ideas, the learning level of low-level structurers rises to a level commensurate with the skills of high-level structurers. Embedded questions promote a more uniform representation of the text than low-structure readers can build on their own, thus bringing them closer to the level achieved by high-structure builders. What happens in this situation remains an open question for now, but the implications for students seem to confirm a thesis previously advanced by neurosurgeon Mike Ebersold and pediatric neurologist Doug Larsen: cultivating the habit of reflecting on one's experiences, turning them into a story enhances learning. Structuring theory can provide clues as to why: reflecting on what went right, what went wrong and how I could do it differently next time helps me isolate key ideas or gather them into mental models and reuse them in the future to improve and develop what I have learned. 13 Learning by rules vs. learning by example Another cognitive difference that seems to matter is whether you are a "rule teacher" or an "example teacher," and this distinction is somewhat similar to the one we just said. When studying different types of problems in a chemistry class or tests in a course on birds and how to identify them, rule teachers tend to abstract from the basic principles or "rules" of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 156, which distinguishes the examined examples. Later, when they encounter a new chemical problem or bird sample, they use the rules to classify it and choose the appropriate solution or sample box. Students who learn by example tend to remember examples rather than basic principles.

When faced with an unfamiliar case, they lack an understanding of the rules needed to classify or solve it, so they generalize from the closest example they can remember, even if it is not particularly relevant to the new case. However, example learners can improve their extraction of fundamental principles when asked to compare two different examples rather than focusing on studying one example at a time. Likewise, they are more likely to discover a common solution to different problems if they first compare problems and try to find underlying similarities. As an illustration, consider two different hypothetical problems faced by a student. These are drawn from research into rule learning. In one mission, the general's forces must attack a castle protected by a moat. The spies learned that the bridges over the moat had been mined by the castle commander. The mines are intended to allow small groups to cross the bridges so that the castle's inhabitants can mine food and fuel. How can a general get large forces across bridges to attack a castle without tripping over mines? The second problem concerns an inoperable tumor that can be destroyed by focused radiation. However, the radiation must also pass through healthy tissue. A beam of sufficient intensity to destroy the tumor will damage the healthy tissue it passes through. How can a tumor be destroyed without damaging healthy tissue? In research, students have difficulty finding a solution to any of these problems unless they are asked to look at Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Go beyond the ê 157 learning styles to discover the similarities between them. Looking for similarities, many students note that (1) both problems require a large amount of force to be directed at the target, (2) full force cannot be accumulated and delivered along one path without a negative result, and (3) smaller forces can be delivered to the target, but a little power is not enough to solve the problem. By identifying these similarities, students often come up with a strategy to split larger forces into smaller ones and send them through different routes to approach and destroy the target without setting off mines or damaging healthy tissue. Here's the benefit: Once this common, underlying solution is found, students can go on to solve many different convergence problems. 14 As with high and low structure builders, our understanding of the rules compared to learning examples is very preliminary. However, we know that structure builders and principle learners are more effective at transferring their knowledge to unfamiliar situations than structure builders and low-skilled learners. You may wonder if the tendency to build high-level structures is related to the tendency to learn rules.

Unfortunately, research is not yet available to answer this question. The development of structure building and rule learning can be seen in a child's ability to tell jokes. A three-year-old probably cannot tell a joke because he lacks an understanding of structure. You answer "Who's there?" and jumps to the punchline: "The door is locked, I can't get in!" He doesn't understand the importance of answering "Doris" after "Who's there?" to set up the joke. But by the time he was five, he had become a tapping virtuoso: he had memorized the structure. Nevertheless, at the age of five, he is not yet adept at other types of jokes because he has not yet learned the basic element that makes jokes work, which of course Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 158 is the "rule" that any kind of punch line requires preparation, either explicitly or implicitly. 15 If you take Bruce Hendry's early lesson about a valuable suitcase full of rare fireworks, you can see him looking at freight cars many years later, working with the same supply and demand building blocks, but within a much more complex model that uses other blocks of knowledge he has built up over the years to address the concepts of credit risk, business cycles and bankruptcy processes.

Why are freight cars in surplus? Because tax incentives for investors have encouraged too much money to flow into their production. How much is a freight car worth? They cost $42,000 each and were like new as they were among the last built. He researched the life of a freight car and its scrap value and looked at leasing contracts. Even if all his cars were idle, the lease payments would have provided a nice return on his investment as profits flowed through the system and the market rotated. If we were there, we would also buy freight cars.

At least we would like to think so. But it's not like filling a bag with fireworks, although the basic principle of supply and demand is the same. You had to buy goods wagons well and understand how to approach it. What we call know-how in everyday speech. Knowledge is not know-how until you understand the basic principles of operation and are able to combine them into a structure that is greater than the sum of its parts. Know-how is learning that enables action. Takeaway Given what we know about learning differences, what is a takeaway?

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Go beyond learning styles ê 159 Be the one in charge. There's an old salesman's school that says you can't shoot a deer from a cabin. The same goes for studying: you have to get dressed, go out the door and find what you're looking for. Mastery, especially of complex ideas, skills and processes, is a challenge. It's not a trial grade, something given by a coach, or a trait that just creeps up on you with old age and gray hair. Embrace the concept of successful intelligence. Go broad: Don't hide in a drawer with your preferred learning style, but take control of your resources and use all your "intelligences" to master the knowledge or skills you want to possess. Describe what you want to know, do or achieve. Then list the required competencies, what you need to learn, and where you can find the knowledge or skills. So go for it. Keep your expertise constantly evolving, practice dynamic testing as a learning strategy to discover your weaknesses, and focus on improving in those areas. It is wise to build on your strengths, but you will become even more competent and versatile if you also use test and trial and error to improve further in areas where your knowledge or persuasion is not enough.

Use active learning strategies such as search practice, spacing, and interleaving. Be aggressive. Like high achievers with dyslexia, develop solutions or skills to compensate for obstacles or gaps in your abilities. Don't rely on what you think is best: like a good pilot testing his instruments, use the quizzes, review and other tools described in Chapter 5 to ensure that your assessment of what you know and can do is accurate, and that your strategies they bring you closer to your goals.

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Let it stick ê 160 Do not assume that you are doing something wrong if you have difficulty learning. Remember that difficulties that you can overcome with more cognitive effort will repay you with depth and continuous learning. Distills the basic principles; build a structure. If you are a model teacher, study two or more examples at a time, not one at a time, and ask yourself how they are similar and different. Are the differences such that they require different solutions, or are the similarities such that they correspond to a common solution? Break down your idea or desired skill into its component parts. If you seem to be a poor structure builder or an exemplary student trying to learn new material, stop and ask from time to time what the main ideas are, what the rules are.

Describe each idea and remind yourself of the points associated with it. What are the big ideas and what concepts or nuances support them?

If you were to test your core ideas, how would you describe them? What scaffolding or framework can you imagine that holds these central ideas together? If we borrowed the spiral staircase metaphor as the structure of Bruce Hendry's investment model, it might work something like this. The spiral staircase consists of three parts: the central post, step and riser. Let's say the middle bar is what connects us from where we are (down here) to where we want to be (up there): it's an investment opportunity. Each step is an element of the contract that protects us from losing money and going backwards, and each increase is an element that moves us up a step. Both steps and risers must be present for the staircase to function and for the offer to be attractive. Knowing the value of scrapped freight cars is a pain - Bruce knows he won't get less for his investment. The next step is guaranteed rental income, while his Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Go beyond learning styles ê 161 capital is frozen. What are farmers? An impending scarcity that will add value. The condition of the car is like new, i.e. hidden value. A trade that does not have steps and risers will not protect against a decline or reliably ensure an increase. Structure is all around us and is accessible to us through the poet's metaphor. Tree with roots, trunk and branches. River. A village with streets and blocks, houses, shops and offices. The structure of the village explains how these elements fit together, giving the village a life and meaning that would not exist if these elements were scattered randomly across the empty landscape. By abstracting the basic principles and combining them into a structure, you reach for something more than just knowledge. You go for know-how. And that kind of mastery will give you an advantage.

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162 In a famous study from the 1970s, a researcher led preschoolers one at a time into a room that had no distractions except marshmallows on a tray on a desk. When the scientist left the room, the child was told that he could now eat the marshmallow, or if he waited 15 minutes, he would be rewarded with another marshmallow. Walter Mischel and his alumni looked through the mirror as the children faced a dilemma. Some put the marshmallow in their mouths the moment the researcher left, but others were able to wait. To survive, these kids tried everything they could think of. "They covered their eyes with their hands, rested their heads on their shoulders . . . they talked to each other, sang, played games with their arms and legs, and even tried to sleep" to distract their eyes and distract them from the reward. 7 Strengthen Your Skills Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: Learning to Learn Effectively, Harvard University Press, 2014.

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Increase Your Skills ê 163 Of the more than six hundred children who took part in the experiment, only a third managed to resist the temptation long enough to get another marshmallow. A series of follow-up studies, the most recent in 2011, found that preschoolers who were able to delay gratification in this exercise were more successful in school and in their careers. The marshmallow study is sublime in its simplicity and as a metaphor for life. We are born with the gift of our genes, but our success also depends to a surprising degree on focus and self-discipline, which are the offspring of motivation and self-power. 1 Let us take a look at James Paterson, a keen Welshman in his thirties, and his unconscious seduction by means of mnemonic devices and memory contests. The word "mnemonic" comes from the Greek word for memory. Mnemonic devices are mental tools that can take many forms, but are generally used to help store large amounts of new material in memory, ready for recall. James first learned about mnemonics when one of his university lecturers briefly mentioned their utility in a lecture. He went straight home, searched the web, bought a book. He figured that if he learned these techniques, he could memorize his classwork in no time and have much more time to spend with friends. He began to memorize things: the names and dates of the psychology classes and the page numbers in the textbook where they were cited. He also practiced social tricks, such as memorizing sequences of cards in a shuffled deck or strings of random numbers read from lists prepared by friends. He spent many hours perfecting his techniques, becoming proficient and socializing in his own company. It was 2006, and when he heard about a memory contest to be held in Cambridge, England, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 164 decided that a lark would enter it. There he surprised himself by taking first place in the beginner category, for which he won a handsome 1000 euros. He was addicted. Realizing that he had nothing to lose by taking the flyer, he entered his first World Memory Championship that same year, which was held in London. Thanks to mnemonics, James decided to collect a few simple facts in order to pass the exam without spending time and effort to fully master the material, but he discovered something completely different, which we will tell you about soon. Memory players, as they call themselves, get started in a variety of ways. Nelson Dellis, the 2012 US Memory Champion, started after his grandmother died of Alzheimer's disease. Nelson watched as her condition worsened over time, and her ability to remember was the first cognitive ability to disappear.

Although he was only in his early twenties, Nelson wondered if he was destined for the same fate and what he could do about it. He discovered mind sports in the hope that if he could develop his memory to great capacity, he might have reserves if illness struck him later in life. Another memory athlete, Nelson founded the Climb for Memory Foundation to raise awareness and research funding for this terrible disease. Nelson also climbs mountains (reaching the summit of Mount Everest twice), hence the name. In this chapter we meet others who, like Paterson and Dellis, have successfully sought to improve their cognitive abilities in one way or another.

The brain is extremely malleable, to use a term used in neurobiology, in most people even in old age. In this chapter, discussing intellectual enhancement, we review some of the questions science is trying to answer about the brain by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase Your Abilities ê 165 the ability to change yourself throughout life and the ability of people to affect these changes and raise their IQ. Then we describe three well-known cognitive strategies that allow you to make better use of the mental power you already possess. In a way, an infant's brain is like a newborn nation. When John Fremont arrived with his expeditionary force at the Pueblo de Los Angeles in 1846 as part of the American campaign to reclaim Mexico's western territories, he had no other way to report his progress to President James Polk in Washington than to send his scout, Kit Carson across the continent on his mule—a round trip of nearly six thousand miles through mountains, deserts, wildernesses, and prairies. Fremont pushed Carson to skim up, not even stopping to shoot game on the road, but to support himself by eating mules when they broke down and had to be replaced. That such a trip would be required reveals the undeveloped state of the country. The five-foot, four-inch, 140-pound Carson was the best we've had to carry messages from one coast to the other. Despite the continent's limitless natural resources, the fledgling nation had few options. To become a power it would need cities, universities, factories, farms and ports, with roads, trains and telegraph lines connecting them. 2 The same applies to the brain. We come into the world with the raw material of our genes, but we become capable by learning and developing the mental models and neural pathways that enable us to reason, solve problems, and create.

We are brought up to believe that the brain is programmed and our intellectual potential is more or less set from birth. Now we know otherwise. The average IQ has risen over the past century as living conditions have changed. When people suffer brain damage from a stroke or accident, researchers have seen the brain somehow redistribute responsibilities so that adjacent networks of neurons take over the work in the damaged areas, allowing Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 166 people to regain lost abilities. Competitions between "memory athletes" such as James Paterson and Nelson Dellis have become an international sport with people trained to perform astonishing feats of memory. It turns out that an expert in medicine, science, music, chess or sports is not only the product of innate talents, as long believed, but also of skills applied layer by layer, over thousands of hours of dedicated practice . In short, research and modern records have shown that we and our brains are capable of much greater feats than scientists thought possible until just a few decades ago. Neuroplasticity All knowledge and memory are physiological phenomena, stored in our neurons and neural pathways. The idea that the brain is not wired but malleable, changeable, something that reorganizes itself with each new task is a recent discovery, and we are on the verge of understanding what that means and how it works. In a useful review of neuroscience, John T. Bruer addressed this question as it relates to the initial development and stabilization of brain circuits and our ability to enhance our children's intellectual abilities through early stimulation. We are born with approximately 100 billion nerve cells, called neurons. A synapse is a connection between neurons that allows them to transmit signals. Shortly before and after birth, we go through an "explosive burst of synapse formation," where the brain connects: neurons shoot out microscopic branches, called axons, that reach out in search of tiny bumps on other neurons, called dendrites. When the axon meets the dendrite, a synapse is formed. In order for some axons to find their target dendrites, they must travel great distances to reach them. Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase Your Abilities ê 167 replenish the connections that make up our neural circuits (a journey of such terrifying scale and precision that Bruer compares it to making our way across the United States to a waiting partner on the opposite coast, like Kit Carson's Mission to President Polk for General Fremont). It is this circuitry that enables our senses, cognition and motor skills, including learning and memory, and it is this circuitry that creates the possibilities and limits of human intellectual ability. The number of synapses peaks at one year of age. or two, about 50 percent higher than the average number we have as adults. There is a plateau period that lasts until around adolescence, after which this excess begins to decline as the brain undergoes a period of synaptic pruning. We reach our adult group of about sixteen with a staggering number, estimated at about 150 trillion connections in total. We don't know why an infant's brain makes an excess of connections, or how it decides which ones to remove. Some neuroscientists believe that the connections we don't use are the ones that decay and die, which seems to manifest a "use it or lose it" principle, advocating early stimulation of as many connections as possible in the hope that preserve them for life. Another theory suggests that swelling and targeting is genetic, and we have little or no control over which synapses survive and which do not. "While children's brains acquire a tremendous amount of information in their early years," neuroscientist Patricia Goldman-Rakic told the U.S. Board of Education, but much of the learning process is acquired after synaptic formation is established. "From the time a child enters first grade, through high school, college, and beyond, the number of synapses changes little. It is during this time, when synaptic formation is absent or little occurs, that most learning takes place" and vi, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID= 3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 168 develop language, math and logic skills at an adult level. 3 And it is more likely during this period than in childhood, according to neuroscientist Harry T. Chugani, that experience and environmental stimulation fine-tune the circuits and make the neural architecture unique. 4 In a 2011 paper, a team of British psychologists and sociologists reviewed the evidence from neuroscience and concluded that the architecture and overall structure of the brain appears to be fundamentally determined by genes, but the fine structure of neural networks appears to be shaped of experience and be capable of significant changes. 5 That the brain is changeable has become clear on many fronts.

In his book The Brain That Changes Itself, Norman Doidge looks at the fascinating cases of patients who overcame severe disabilities with the help of neurologists whose research and practice are pushing the boundaries of our understanding of neuroplasticity. One of them was Paul Bach-y-Rita, who was the first to invent a device to help patients with damage to their sense organs.

Bach-y-Rita's device allows them to regain lost skills by teaching the brain to respond to stimulation of other parts of the body, replacing one sensory system with another, just as a blind person can learn to navigate by echolocation, learn to "see " their surroundings by interpreting various sounds made by tapping with a cane, or he may learn to read by touch using braille. 6 One of Bacha-Rita's patients suffered damage to the vestibular system (the way the inner ear senses balance and spatial orientation) and lost her balance to the point where she was unable to stand, walk, or stand upright. termination. Bach-y-Rita forged a helmet with carpenter's levels attached to Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Improve your ê 169 skills and wire them to send impulses to a postage-stamp-sized strip of tape containing 144 microelectrodes placed on a woman's tongue. When she tilted her head, the electrodes on her tongue flashed like effervescence, but in distinctive patterns that reflected the direction and angle of her head's movements.

Through practice wearing the device, the woman was able to gradually retrain her brain and vestibular system, regaining her sense of balance for longer and longer periods after exercise. Another patient, a thirty-five-year-old man who had lost his sight at thirteen, was fitted with a small video camera mounted on his helmet to send impulses to his tongue.

As Bach-y-Rita explained, it is not the eyes that see, but the brain. The eyes sense and the brain interprets. The success of this device depends on whether the brain learns to interpret signals from the tongue as vision. The remarkable results were described in the New York Times: The patient "finds the door, catches the balls rolling towards him and plays rock, paper, scissors with his little daughter for the first time in twenty years. [He said] that with practice the sense becomes , which is replaced, better, "as if the brain reprogrammed itself."7 In yet another application, interesting in light of our earlier discussions of metacognition, to the chest pi to transmit cockpit instrument readings that help the brain to sense changes in pitch and elevation that the pilot's vestibular system cannot detect in certain flight conditions.

Nerve cell bodies make up most of the part of our brain that scientists call gray matter. What they call white matter is made up of wiring: axons that connect to the dendrites of other nerve cell bodies, and the waxy myelin sheaths where Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 170 some of the axons are wrapped like a plastic sheath on the tube cord. Both gray matter and white matter are the subject of intense scientific research as we try to understand how the components that shape cognitive and motor functions work and how they change over the course of our lives. brain imaging technology. An ambitious endeavor is the Human Connectome Project, funded by the National Institutes of Health, with the goal of mapping the connections in the human brain. (The word "connectome" refers to the architecture of human neural circuits in the same spirit that "genome" was coined to map the human genetic code.) The participating research institutions' websites show striking images of the brain's fiber architecture, masses of wire-like human axons depicted in neon colors to indicate the directions of the signals and bears an eerie resemblance to the massive wiring harnesses inside the supercomputers of the 1970s. Early research results are exciting. A study from the University of California, Los Angeles compared the synaptic architecture of identical twins, whose genes are similar, and fraternal twins, who share only some genes. This study showed what others have suggested, that the speed of our mental abilities is determined by the robustness of our neural connections; that this resistance in the initial stages is largely determined by our genes, but our neural circuits no longer mature at the time of our physical development, but instead change and grow in our forties, fifties and sixties. As part of the maturation of these connections, there is a gradual thickening of the myelin sheath of the axons. Myelination usually starts at the back of the brain and moves forward, reaching the frontal lobes as we grow up. The frontal lobes perform the brain's executive functions and are where the high-level processes of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your skills ê 171 reasoning and judgment, skills that develop through experience. Myelin thickness correlates with ability, and research strongly suggests that increased practice builds more myelin along related pathways, improving the strength and speed of electrical signals and, as a result, per mance. For example, an increase in piano playing practice has shown a correlated increase in myelination of nerve fibers related to finger movements and cognitive processes involved in creating music, changes that do not occur in non-musicians. 8 The study of habit formation provides an interesting perspective on neuroplasticity. The neural circuits we use when we take conscious action toward a goal are not the same ones we use when our actions become automatic, as a result of habit.

The actions we take out of habit are directed from an area deeper in the brain, the basal ganglia. When we engage in extended practice and repetition of certain types of learning, particularly fine motor skills and sequential tasks, our learning is thought to be encoded in this deeper area, the same area that controls subconscious actions such as eye movements.

As part of this encoding process, it is assumed that the brain combines sequences of motor and cognitive actions so that they can be performed as a single unit, that is, without having to make a series of conscious decisions, which would slow down our responses. These sequences become reflective. That is, they may start out as actions we learn to take in pursuit of a goal, but they become automatic responses to stimuli. Some researchers have used the word "macro" (a simple computer application) to describe how chunking works as a form of highly efficient, consolidated learning. Theories of Chunking as an Integral Part of Habit Formation Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 172 help explain how in sports we develop the ability to react to rapid developments faster than we can think about them, how a musician's finger movements can anticipate his conscious thoughts, or how a chess player can learn to anticipate countless possible features and implications of different table configurations.

Most of us display the same talent when we write.

Another fundamental sign of permanent brain variability is the discovery that the hippocampus, where we consolidate learning and memory, is capable of generating new neurons throughout life. This phenomenon, called neurogenesis, is thought to play a key role in the brain's ability to recover from physical injury and in lifelong learning. The relationship between neurogenesis and learning and memory is a new area of research, but already scientists have shown that the activity of associative learning (that is, learning and remembering relationships between unrelated subjects, such as names and faces) stimulates the growth of new neuron formation in the hippocampus. This increase in neurogenesis begins before a new learning activity is initiated, suggesting that the brain is learning, and continues for some time after the learning activity, suggesting that neurogenesis plays a role in memory consolidation and beneficial effects that spread over time and strenuous search practices impact long-term retention. 9 Of course, learning and memory are neural processes. The fact that the practice of recalling, placing, practicing, learning rules, and constructing mental models improves learning and memory is evidence of neuroplasticity and is consistent with the scientific understanding of memory consolidation as a factor in increasing and strengthening the neural pathways, whereby one is later able to recover and apply learning. In the words of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase Your Abilities ê 173 by Ann and Richard Barnet, Human Intellectual Development is "a lifelong dialogue between inherited tendencies and our life history." 10 The nature of this dialogue is the central question we will explore later in this chapter. Is IQ variable? IQ is a product of genes and environment. Compare that to height: it's mostly inherited, but over the decades, as nutrition improved, generations grew taller.

Similarly, IQ in all industrialized parts of the world has shown a steady increase since the introduction of standardized sampling in 1932, a phenomenon named the Flynn effect after the political scientist who first drew attention to it. 11 In the United States, the average IQ has increased by eighteen points in the last sixty years. For any age group, an IQ of 100 is the average score of people taking IQ tests, so an increase means that having an IQ of 100 today is equivalent to the intelligence of those whose IQ 60 years ago was 118. This is on average increased and there are several theories as to why this happens, the main ones being that schools, culture (eg subtests that make up the IQ test. Richard Nisbett in his book Intelligence and How to Get It discusses the spread of stimuli in modern society that did not exist many years ago, citing as a simple example a puzzle maze that McDonald's included in its Happy Meals a few years ago, which was more difficult than the mazes of the gifted IQ- test.12 Nisbett also writes of "environmental multipliers," suggesting that a tall child who goes out to a basketball game develops a skill in the sport that a young child of the same ability will not develop, as does Brown , Peter C. et al., Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make it stick ê 174 A curious kid who goes to study becomes smarter than an equally smart but uninteresting kid who doesn't. Learning opportunities have grown exponentially. It may be a very small genetic difference that makes one child more curious than another, but the effect is amplified in an environment where curiosity is easily aroused and satisfied. Another environmental factor that shapes IQ is socioeconomic status and the increased stimulation and care generally available in families with more resources and education. On average, children from wealthy families score higher on IQ than children from poor families, and children from poor families who are adopted into wealthy families score higher on IQ tests than those who do not, regardless of whether the biological parents were or no. low socioeconomic status. The ability to raise IQ is fraught with controversy and the subject of countless studies that reflect wide discrepancies in scientific rigor. Published in 2013, a comprehensive review of existing research on raising intelligence in young children sheds useful light on the issue, in part because of the strict criteria set by the authors to determine which studies qualified for consideration. Eligible studies had to be from the general non-clinical population; have a randomized, experimental design; rely on continuous interventions rather than one-off treatments or mere manipulations during the study; and use a universally accepted, standardized measure of intelligence. The authors focused on experiments involving children from the prenatal period to the age of five, and studies that met their criteria included more than 37,000 participants. What did they find? Nutrition affects IQ. Giving dietary supplements containing fatty acids to pregnant women, lactating women, and infants resulted in an increase in IQ for all - Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your skills ê 175 where from 3.5 to 6.5 points. Certain fatty acids are building blocks for nerve cell development that the body cannot produce on its own, and the theory behind the results is that these dietary supplements support the formation of new synapses. Studies of other supplements, such as iron and B vitamins, have strongly suggested benefits, but these need to be confirmed in further research before they can be considered definitive.

In terms of environmental effects, the authors found that enrolling poor children in preschool raises IQ by more than four points and by more than seven if the intervention takes place in a center rather than at home, where there is less stimulation. consistently upheld. (Early education was defined as environmental enrichment and structured learning prior to kindergarten enrollment.) More affluent children, who are likely to have many of these benefits at home, may not show similar benefits from enrolling in preschool. Additionally, no evidence supports the widely held notion that the younger children are first enrolled in these programs, the better outcomes. On the contrary, John Bruer argues, the evidence suggests that the first few years of life are not narrow developmental windows that close quickly. IQ increases have been found in several areas of cognitive training. When mothers from low-income homes were given resources to provide their children with educational tools, books and puzzles, and were trained to help their children learn to speak and recognize objects at home, the children showed increases in IQ. When mothers of three-year-olds from low-income families were trained to talk to their children often and for longer periods of time and engage their children with many open-ended questions, the children's IQ increased. Reading to a child four years of age or younger raises a child's IQ, especially if the child is an active participant in reading, encouraged by the parent to develop. Reading to a child is not uplifting after age four Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 176 IQ, but still accelerates your child's language development. Kindergarten raises a child's IQ by more than four points, and if school includes language learning, by more than seven points. Again, there is no evidence to support the conclusion that preschool education, preschool or language learning would increase the IQ of children from more affluent families where they already enjoy the benefits of a richer environment. 13 Brain training? What about brain training games? We've seen a new type of business emerge that offers online games and videos that promise to train the brain like a muscle and build cognitive abilities. These products are largely based on the results of a 2008 Swiss study, which was very limited in scope and has not been replicated. 14 The study focused on improving "fluid intelligence": the ability to reason abstractly, grasp unfamiliar conditions, and solve new kinds of problems. Fluid intelligence is one of the two types of intelligence that make up IQ. The other is crystallized intelligence, a storehouse of knowledge that we have accumulated over the years. It is clear that we can increase our crystallized intelligence through effective learning and memory strategies, but what about our fluid intelligence? A key determinant of fluid intelligence is a person's working memory capacity—the number of new ideas and relationships a person can recall while working on a problem (especially with some distraction). The Swiss researchers focused on giving participants tasks that required increasingly difficult working memory challenges, keeping two different stimuli in mind for longer and longer periods of distraction. One of the stimuli was the sequence of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your skills ê 177 digits. The other was a small square of light that appeared in various places on the screen. Both the numbers and the space on the square changed every three seconds. The task was to decide—by looking at a sequence of changed digits and rearranged squares—for each combination of a number and a square, whether it matched the combination presented for the n elements in the array. The number n increased during the trials, making the working memory challenge more and more difficult. At the beginning of the study, all participants were tested for fluid intelligence. They were then given these increasingly difficult exercises of their working memory over periods extending up to nineteen days. At the end of the training, their fluid intelligence was tested again. All performed better than before training, and those who trained the longest showed the greatest improvement. These results showed for the first time that fluid intelligence can be increased through training. What is the criticism?

The participants were few (only thirty-five) and were all recruited from a similar, highly intelligent population. Furthermore, the study only focused on one training task, so it is unclear to what extent it may apply to other working memory training tasks, or whether the results are really about working memory and not a participant peculiarity. education. Finally, the durability of the improved performance is unknown and, as mentioned, the results have not been replicated in other studies. The ability to replicate empirical findings is the foundation of a scientific theory. The website PsychFileDrawer.org lists the top 20 psychological studies that users of this website would like to replicate, with the Swiss study first on the list. A recent trial, published in 2013, showed no improvement. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 178 for fluid intelligence as a result of repeating exercises in the Swiss study. Interestingly, the study participants believed that their mental abilities had increased, which the authors describe as illusory. However, the authors also acknowledge that increased self-efficacy may lead to greater persistence in solving difficult problems, encouraged by the belief that training has improved one's skills. 15 The brain is not a muscle, so polishing one skill does not automatically polish others. Learning and memory strategies such as recall practice and mental model building are effective in increasing intellectual capacity for the material or skill being practiced, but the benefits do not extend to mastery of other material or skills. Studies of expert brains show increased myelination of axons associated with the knowledge area, but not elsewhere in the brain. The observed changes in myelination in piano virtuosos are specific to piano virtuosity. But the ability to make exercise a habit can be generalized. To the extent that "brain training" improves efficiency and confidence, as claimed by providers, the benefits are more likely to come from better habits, such as learning to pay attention and persevere with practice.

Richard Nisbett writes about environmental "multipliers" that can have a disproportionate effect on small genetic dispositions - a child who is genetically slightly more curious becomes much smarter if he is in an environment that nurtures curiosity. Now turn that point of view on its head.

Since it is unlikely that I will raise my IQ anytime soon, are there strategies or behaviors that can serve as cognitive "multipliers" to enhance the performance of the intelligence I already possess? Brown, Peter C. et al. . Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your skills ê 179 got? Yes. Here are three of them: a growth mindset, practicing like an expert, and constructing cues by heart. Growth Mindset Let's go back to the old rule: "If you think you can or you think you can't, you're right." If it turns out there is more truth than joke here. Attitude matters a lot. Of great interest was psychologist Carol Dweck's research, which showed how much one simple belief can greatly influence learning and behavior: the belief that your level of intellectual ability is not constant, but largely depends on your own hands. 16 Dweck and her colleagues replicated and extended their findings in several studies. In one of her early experiments, she conducted workshops for underachieving seventh graders at middle schools in New York City, teaching them about the brain and effective learning techniques. Half of the group also received a presentation on memory, but the other half were explained how the brain changes as a result of hard learning: that when you try hard and learn something new, the brain creates new connections, and these new connections make you wiser over time. This group was told that intellectual development is not a natural development of intelligence, but a result of new connections made through effort and study. After the workshop, both groups of children returned to their classrooms. Their teachers were unaware that some were taught that the effort to study changes the brain, but as the school year progressed, these students adopted what Dweck calls a "growth mindset," the belief that their intelligence is largely below their control. , and later became much more aggressive. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 180 students and higher achievers than those in the first group, who still had the conventional view, what Dweck calls the "fixed mindset", that their intellectual abilities were determined at birth by the innate talents they were born with with.

Dweck's research was inspired by her curiosity about why some people become helpless when faced with challenges and fail, while others respond to failure by trying new strategies and redoubling their efforts. She found that the key difference between the two responses is how a person attributes failure: Those who attribute failure to their own incompetence—“I'm not smart”—are left helpless.

Those who interpret failure as the result of insufficient effort or an ineffective strategy go deeper and try different approaches.

Dweck noted that some students pursue specific goals while others pursue learning goals. In the first case, you work to validate your skills. In the second, you work on acquiring new knowledge or skills. People with specific goals unconsciously limit their potential. If you focus on proving or showing your abilities, you choose challenges you are sure you can handle. You want to look elegant, so you do the same feat over and over again. But if your goal is to increase your skills, you take on bigger and bigger challenges and interpret mistakes as useful information that helps you focus, become more creative, and work harder. "If you want to demonstrate something over and over again, 'skill' feels like something static that's inherent in you, whereas if you want to increase your skills, it feels like something dynamic and malleable," says Dweck. Learning goals set completely different thought and action chains in motion than perforce goals. 17 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your skills ê 181 Paradoxically, the focus on perfect training conquers some sports stars. Praised for being "naturals", they believe their performance is the result of innate gifts. The idea is that if they're natural, they don't have to work hard to stand out, and in fact, many just avoid exercise because the need to exercise is public proof that their natural gifts aren't good enough to cut it mustard for anything. Focusing on action instead of learning and growing causes people to refrain from taking risks or exposing themselves to ridicule, exposing themselves to situations where they have to exert effort to achieve a critical outcome.

Dweck's work has expanded to include praise and the power it has to shape how people respond to challenges.

Here is an example. A group of fifth graders are given a puzzle to solve individually. Some students who solve the puzzle are praised for their cleverness; other students who solve it are praised for their hard work. Then the students are asked to choose another puzzle: of similar difficulty or one that is more difficult but that they could learn from by trying to solve it. Most students who are praised for being smart choose the easier puzzle; 90 percent of children who are praised for their efforts make more difficult choices. For this study, students are given puzzles of two people, Tom and Bill. The puzzles Tom gives the students can be solved with effort, but the ones Bill gives them cannot be solved. Each student receives a puzzle from Tom and Bill.

After working to solve the puzzles, some children are praised for their cleverness and others for their effort. In the second round, the children are given more riddles by Tom and Bill, and this time all the riddles are solvable. Here's a surprise: Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 182 students praised for being smart, few solved the puzzles they were given by Bill, even though they were the same puzzles the students had solved previously when given them by Tom. For those who saw being smart as the most important thing, they felt defeated and helpless if they failed to solve Bill's puzzles in the first round. When you praise intelligence, kids get the message that being perceived as smart is the name of the game. "Emphasizing effort gives a child a rare variable he can control," says Dweck. But "emphasizing natural intelligence is beyond the child's control and does not provide a good recipe for responding to failure." 18 Paul Tough, in his recent book How Children Succeed, builds on the work of Dweck and others to show that our success depends less on IQ and more on perseverance, curiosity and persistence. An essential ingredient is facing adversity in childhood and learning to cope with it. Tough writes that children from the lowest strata of society are so burdened with challenges and lack of resources that they have no chance of success. But here's another paradox, the kids at the top of the pile, who are raised in cozy surroundings, praised for being smart, saved from trouble by debauched parents, and never allowed to fail or overcome adversity on their own, are also denied character-forming experiences necessary for success later in life. 19 A kid born on third base who grows up believing he's hit a triple is unlikely to take on challenges that will allow him to discover his full potential. Focusing on looking elegant keeps a person from taking risks in life, both the small ones that help people achieve their aspirations and the bold, visionary moves that lead to greatness. Failure Like Carol Dweck Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your skills ê 183 tells us, provides useful information and allows you to discover what you are capable of if you really decide to do it. The takeaway from Dweck, Tough, and their colleagues in this field is that more than IQ, it's the discipline, persistence, and a growth mindset that imbues a person with the sense of ability, creativity, and persistence necessary for further education and success . "Learning skills and learning abilities don't matter as long as they're not powered by an active ingredient," says Dweck.

The active ingredient is a simple but profound realization that the power to increase your abilities is largely within your own control. Thought-provoking exercise When you see the exceptional skill of an expert in any field - pianist, chess player, golfer - you may wonder what natural talent must underlie their abilities, but the expert's perfection is usually not the result of some gene . a net disposition or an IQ advantage. It is built up from thousands of hours of what Anders Ericsson calls sustained, thoughtful practice. If doing something repeatedly can be considered practice, intentional practice is something else: it is purposeful, often solitary, and consists of repeated efforts to surpass the current level of performance. It is believed that regardless of the field, an expert is acquired for everyone by slowly acquiring more and more complex patterns, patterns that are used to store knowledge about what actions to take in a large vocabulary of different situations. . Witness a chess master. By studying the positions on the chessboard, he can consider many alternative moves and the countless different directions each of them can accelerate. The pursuit, failure, problem solving, and retrying that characterize Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 184 thoughtful practices build new knowledge, physiological adaptations, and complex mental models required to achieve higher and higher levels. When Michelangelo finally finished painting over 400 life-size figures on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, he probably wrote again: "If people knew how hard I worked to achieve mastery, it wouldn't seem so wonderful at all. What which appeared to his admirers to be the result of pure genius required four grueling years of work and dedication.20 Thoughtful practice is not usually comfortable, and for most students it requires a coach or coaches who can help identify areas of performance that need improvement , help focus attention on specific aspects and provide feedback to keep perceptions and judgments accurate.The effort and persistence of purposeful practice rewires the brain and physiology to meet higher demands, but becoming proficient in any field is specific to that field. It gives you no advantage or advantage to gain expertise in another area.A simple example of the practice of brain rewiring is the treatment of focal hand dystonia, a syndrome that affects some guitarists and pianists whose repeated playing has reprogrammed their brains to believe that two fingers have fused into one. Through a series of challenging exercises, you can help them gradually retrain their fingers to move independently. One of the reasons why experts are sometimes considered to be gifted with incredible talent is that some can observe a complex activity in their field and then reconstruct from memory every aspect of that activity in minute detail. Mozart was famous for being able to reconstruct complex notes in a single listen. But that ability, says Ericsson, lifts Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your skills ê 185 not through a sixth sense, but through a better perception and memory of an expert in your field, which is the result of years of acquired skills and knowledge in the field.

Most people who have gained experience in one area are destined to be mediocre in other areas of life. Ten thousand hours, or ten years of practice, is the average time that the people Ericsson studied invested in becoming experts in their fields, and the best of them spent the majority of those hours in solitary, deliberate practice. The main idea here is that being an expert is a product of the quantity and quality of practice, not genetic predisposition, and that becoming an expert is not beyond the reach of normally gifted people who have the motivation, time, and discipline to pursue it. . Memory Cues Mnemonic devices, as we mentioned, are mental tools that help keep material in mind, cues for easy recall. (Mnemosyne, one of the nine muses in Greek mythology, was the goddess of memory.) Some examples of simple mnemonic devices are acronyms such as "ROY G BIV" for the colors of the rainbow and reverse acronyms, as in "I Value" Xylophones like cows dig milk" for growing Roman numeral values from 1 to 1000 (eg V = 5; D = 500).

A memory palace is a more complex type of mnemonic device useful for organizing and storing large amounts of material in memory. It is based on a method of loci that dates back to the ancient Greeks and involves associating mental images with a series of physical locations to help with memories. For example, you imagine yourself in a space that is very familiar to you, such as your home, and then associate distinctive elements of that space, such as your easy Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 186 chair with a visual image of something you want to remember.

(When you think of your chair, imagine a lithe yogi sitting there to remind you to renew your yoga classes.) The features of your home can be linked to a myriad of visual cues that will help you recall your memories later when you just take an imaginary tour around the house. If it is important to recall material in a specific order, the signals can be arranged sequentially along a route through your home. (The method of loci is also used to connect clues to features you encounter on a very familiar journey, such as going to the corner store.) As we write this piece, a group of students from Oxford, England, are building memory palaces to prepare sit for their psychology exam. Each week for six weeks, they and their instructor visited a different coffee shop in the city, where they relaxed with a cup of coffee, took in the decor of the place and discussed how they imagined it should be filled with living characters who would be drawn from important aspects of psychology that they have to write about for the exam. We will return to these students, but first a few words about this technique, which is surprisingly effective and stems from the way images bring life and make connections to memory. People remember pictures more easily than words. (For example, the picture of an elephant is easier to remember than the word "elephant"). Thus, it is understandable that associating vivid mental images with verbal or abstract material makes it easier to retrieve this material from memory. A strong image in the mind can be as safe and abundant as a loaded fish. Pull it and the catch of the day will rise to the surface. When an acquaintance reminds you of a conversation with someone you met on a trip, you have a hard time remembering it. Tells you where Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your skills ê 187 there was a discussion and you imagine the place. Oh yes, everything comes back. Pictures bring back memories. 21 Mark Twain described his personal experience with this phenomenon in an article published by Harper's. In his speeches, Twain used a list of clauses to go through the different phases of his speeches, but he found this system unsatisfactory – when you look at pieces of text, they all look alike. He experimented with alternatives and eventually came up with the idea of tracing his speech in a series of rough pencil sketches. The sketches did their job. A haystack with a snake underneath told him where to begin the story of his adventures in Carson Valley, Nevada. An umbrella tilted against a strong wind took him to the next part of the story, to the fierce wind that blew from the Sierras around two o'clock every afternoon. And so on. The power of these sketches to evoke memory impressed Twain, and one day the idea was born to help his children, who still had difficulty learning the kings and queens of England, despite the long hours spent by their nanny trying to forge names, and goes back to them by brutal repetition. It occurred to Twain to try to visualize successive governments.

We were on the farm then. From the porch the ground sloped down to the lower fence and rose to the right to the rise where my little studio stood. The wagon road wound across the grounds and up the hill. I charted it with the English monarchs, beginning with [William] the Conqueror, and you could stand on the porch and distinctly see each reign and its length, from the Conquest to Victoria, and then in the forty-sixth year of her reign—88 ONE HUNDRED AND SEVEN YEARS of English history under you instantly! . . . Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 188 I measured 817 feet of roadway, one foot representing a year, and at the beginning and end of each reign I drove a three-foot stake of white pine into the turf beside the road and wrote the name and dates on it.

Twain and the children drew icons for each of the monarchs: a whale for William the Conqueror, because both names begin with W, and because "it is the largest swimming fish, and William is the most conspicuous figure in the English language." history"; a hen for Henry I, and so on.

We have a lot of fun with the story line; and exercise too. We ran from the Conqueror to the studio and the children called out names, dates and reigns as we passed the staves. . . . The children were encouraged to stop referring to things like "by the gazebo", "in the oak tree" or "on the stone steps" and instead say that these things are with Stephen or the Commonwealth or George III. They got used to it easily. It was a great blessing to me to trace a long road with such accuracy, for I was in the habit of leaving books and other articles lying, and had previously been unable to name the place accurately, so that I often had to walk and fetch it myself to save myself time and misfortune; but now I could name the reign in which I left them, and send the children. 22 Rhyme schemes can also be used as mnemonic devices. The peg method is a rhyme scheme for memorizing lists. Each number from 1 to 20 is associated with a rhyming, specific image: 1 is a bun, 2 is a shoe, 3 is a tree, 4 is a shop, 5 is a beehive, 6 is a trick, 7 is the sky, 8 is a gate, 9 is a string, 10 is a pen. (After 10, add an ear and start over with three syllable words that indicate: 11 is an ear, sunset; 12 is two ears, glue stick; 13 is Brown, Peter C. and others. Make It Stick: Learning to Learn Effectively, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your skills ê 189 threepenny, bumble bee; and so on up to 20.) You use rhyme-specific pictures as "pegs" on which you can "hang" things you want to remember, such as tasks you want to do today. These twenty images stay with you, always at hand when you need help remembering your to-do list. So when you're running errands: a bump reminds you of your hairstyle and reminds you to buy a hat for a ski trip; the shoe reminds you of good clothes and encourages you to pick up the dry cleaning; tree reminds you of a family tree and pushes a birthday card to your cousin. The rhyming images remain the same and the associations they evoke change each time a new list has to be memorized. A song you know well can provide a mnemonic structure that combines the lyrics of each musical phrase with an image that will be the cue to trigger the desired memory. According to anthropologist Jack Weatherford, a prominent historian of Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire, traditional poems and songs appear to have been used as memory devices to accurately transmit messages over long distances, from China to one end of the empire. to the EU rope at the other end. The military was banned from sending written messages, and how they communicated remains a mystery, but Weatherford believes mnemonic devices were the likely method.

He notes that, for example, a Mongolian song known as the Long Song, which describes the movement of a horse, can be sung in different tones and trills to convey movement in a particular place, such as crossing a steppe or low mountains. The versatility of mnemonic devices is almost endless. They share a structure—a numerical chart, an itinerary, a floor plan, a song, a poem, an aphorism, an acronym—that is deeply familiar and whose elements can be easily linked to the target information to be remembered. 23 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 190 Back to psychology students preparing for A-Levels: In a class at Bellerbys College, Oxford, a dark-haired 18-year-old girl we'll call Marlys sits down to write her A2 exams in psychology . She will be asked to write five essays over two test sessions of a total of three and a half hours. A-level courses are the British equivalent of Advanced Placement courses in the US and are a prerequisite for studying at a university. Marlys is under a lot of pressure. Firstly, her exam results will determine whether she gets into the university of her choice - she applied to the London School of Economics. To secure a place at a top UK university, students must pass A-levels in three subjects, and the grades they will achieve are published in advance by the universities. It is not unusual for them to get an A in every subject. If they earn less than the required grade, they must compete in a difficult settlement process with universities filling their remaining spots, a process that has much in common with the lottery. If that wasn't stressful enough, the range of material Marlys must be prepared to master in the next hour and a half is enormous. She and her psychology colleagues studied six main topics in their second year of preparation: eating behavior, aggression, relationships, schizophrenia, anomalistic psychology and psychological research methods. For each of the first five topics, she must be prepared to write essays on seven different questions. Each essay must explain the answer in twelve short paragraphs, e.g. describes the thesis or condition, existing research and its relevance, opposing opinions, any biological treatments (for example for schizophrenia) and how they relate to the basic concepts of psychology. which she mastered during her first year exams. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase Your Skills ê 191 she tackles: Five main topics, times seven essay questions on each topic, with a dozen concise, well-argued paragraphs in each essay to demonstrate your mastery of the topic. In other words, the collection of various essays he must master before taking the exams totals thirty-five—plus a series of short-answer questions on psychological research methods. Marlys knows which of the main subjects will be the subject of today's exam, but she has no idea which questions will be asked, so she had to prepare to write them all. Many students who have reached this point simply freeze. Despite being well grounded in their material, the stakes of the game can leave them speechless the moment they are faced with a blank exam booklet and a tutor's ticking clock. This is where taking the time to build a memorial palace proves to be worth its weight in gold. It is not important that you understand the intricacies of the UK exams, but that they are difficult and important, which is why memory tools are such a welcome tool during the exam. Today, it turns out that the test's three subjects are evolutionary explanations for human aggression, psychological and biological treatments for schizophrenia, and the success and failure of dieting. Okay. As for aggression, Marlys has a she-wolf with her hungry cubs in the Krispy Kreme window on Castle Street. For schizophrenia, he has an over-caffeinated barista at Starbucks on the High Street. As for diet, it would be an unusually large and aggressive potted plant at the Preta-a-Manger cafe on Cornmarket Street. Perfect. She takes her seat, confident in her knowledge and her ability to elicit it. He first deals with an essay on diet. Preta-a-Manger is Marlys' memory palace to store what she has learned about diet success and failure.

Thanks to her previous visit there, she became thoroughly familiar with its rooms and furniture and populated them with Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 192 characters that are very familiar and alive in her imagination.

The characters' names and behavior now serve as clues to a dozen key points in her essay. He walks into the store in his mind. La Fern (the man-eating plant in "Little Shop of Horrors," one of her favorite movies) holds Marlys' friend Herman captive with a wine wrapped tightly around him, keeping him from a large plate of macaroni and cheese standing nearby side of it. its reach. Marlys opens her exam book and begins to write. "Herman and Mack's restraint theory suggests that trying to refrain from overeating can actually make you more likely to overeat. This means that in restrained eaters, this disinhibition (loss of control) is the cause of overeating . . .". This is how Marlys gets through the coffee shop and the essay. Herman bursts out of his restraints with a mighty roar and runs like a bee to his plate, practically inhaling the noodles until they burst. "The restraint theory was supported by the Wardle and Beale studies, which showed that obese women who restricted their food actually ate more [inhaled pasta] than obese women who began exercising and more than those who made no changes in their diet. your diet. or lifestyle. However, Ogden claims. . ". and so on. Marlys moves clockwise around the coffee shop in her mind, encountering clues about the boundary model of hunger and satiety, biases from cultural bias against obesity, problems with anecdotal evidence-based dietary data, metabolic differences associated with high levels of lipoprotein lipase ("little pink lemons" ) and the rest. From Preta-a-Manger she continues to the Krispy Kreme store, where a mental walk through the interior conjures up images that again point to what she has learned about evolutionary explanations for aggression. Then on to Starbucks, where the mad barista, shop floor plan, and clientele give her clues to Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty /detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase Your Skills ê 193 for twelve sections on the biological treatment of schizophrenia.

Marlys' psychology teacher at Bellerbys College is none other than James Paterson, a boyish-looking Welshman who happens to be a rising figure in the world's memory competitions. 24 When teachers at Bellerbys fill out paperwork to take students on field trips, it is usually to the Saïd Business School, or perhaps the Ashmolean Museum or the Bodleian Library in Oxford. Not so with James. More likely, his paperwork will request permission to take students to one of the city's half dozen different coffee shops, convenient places where they can use their imaginations and construct their mnemonic plans. In order for students to remember all thirty-five essays well, they divide the topics into several groups. For one group, they build memorial palaces in cafes and well-known places on Bellerby's campus. For another group, they use the peg method. Still other groups link to images in favorite songs and movies. However, we should note an important point. Before taking the students on memory trips to build memory palaces, Paterson thoroughly discussed the material in class so they could understand it. Among former Paterson students who graduated from Bellerbys and began using the technique at university is Michela Seong-Hyun Kim, who described to us how she prepares for university-level psychology exams. First, he collects all his material from lecture slides, external readings and notes. It reduces this material to key ideas, not to complete sentences. They form the plan for her essay. He then selects a site for his memorial palace. Each key idea is linked to a place in the palace, which Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make it stick ê 194 in her mind. Then she fills each space with something crazy that will tie her to one of the key ideas.

When he sits in the exam room and finds essay topics, he spends ten minutes mentally going through the respective memory palaces and making a list of key ideas for each essay. If she has forgotten an item, she moves on to the next one and fills in the blank later. Once the plan is outlined, she goes to work, free from the stressful anxiety of not remembering what she's learned under the pressure to get it right. 25 What she does is not so different from what Mark Twain did when he used sketches to memorize his speeches. Michela says that the idea of skipping an item she can't remember but will complete later would have been completely foreign to her before she learned to use memory techniques, but the techniques gave her the confidence to do so, knowing the content would come to mind. for a while. The memory palace is not used as a learning tool, but as a method of organizing what has already been learned so that it can be easily retrieved during essay time. This is a key point that helps overcome the common criticism that mnemonics are only useful for rote memorization. On the contrary, if used correctly, mnemonics can help or accumulate a large amount of knowledge to enable quick retrieval. Michela's confidence that she can use what she knows when she needs it is a huge stress and time saver, says James. It is worth admitting that Krispy Kreme and Starbucks stores are not often called palaces, but the mind is capable of miracles.

At the first World Championship in Paterson's memory, the rookie year of 2006, he did well, finishing twelfth, just ahead of American Joshua Foer, who later Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your abilities ê 195 published a description of his experience with mnemonics in the book Moonwalking with Einstein. Paterson can memorize a sequence of playing cards in a shuffled deck in less than two minutes, hand you the deck, and then recite it to you with your eyes closed. Give him an hour and he will memorize ten or twelve decks and recite them flawlessly.

The best masters can memorize a single deck in a maximum of thirty seconds and more than twenty-five decks in an hour, so Paterson has a lot to do, but he is a dedicated player and remains strong as he develops his memorization skills and tools. For example, just as the peg method involves memorizing a picture for the numbers 1 to 10 (1 is a bun, 2 is a shoe, etc.), to remember much longer strings of numbers, Paterson committed to memorizing a unique picture for every digit from 0 to 1000 This kind of achievement requires many hours of practice and intense focus - the kind of solitary effort that Anders Ericsson says characterizes the acquisition of knowledge. Thousands of images stored in memory took Paterson a year to master, fitting in with the other demands of family, work and friends. We met Paterson in the school office and asked if he would mind a short memorial show, to which he readily agreed. Once we recited a sequence of random numbers 615392611333517. Paterson listened carefully and then said, "Okay. We'll use that space." He looked around the frames.

"I can see this water cooler turning into a space shuttle taking off just like the subway shooting out of the bottom of the cooler. On the shelves behind the fridge, I see rapper Eminem fighting Leslie Nielsen from Naked Gun while Lt. Columbo looks down on them. 26 How to understand it? Remembering numbers in groups of three. Each three-digit number is a separate image. For Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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For example, Make It Stick ê 196 number 615 is always the Space Shuttle, 392 is always London Embankment Underground Station, 611 is Leslie Nielsen, 333 is Eminem, and 517 is Lieutenant Columbo. To make sense of these images, you need to understand another underlying mnemonic: for each digit from 0 to 9, James associated a speech sound. The number 6 is always the sound of Sheh or Jeh, 1 is always the sound of Tuh or Duh, and 5 is the sound of L. So the image for the number 615 is Sheh Tuh L, or shuttle. Virtually every three-digit number from 000 to 999 lives in Paterson's mind as a unique image that embodies these sounds. For example, in our impromptu quiz, he used these images in addition to the space shuttle:

392 3 = m, 9 = b, 2 = n fill 611 6 = sh, 1 = t, 1 = t shootout 333 3 = m, 3 = m, 3 = m Eminem 517 5 = l, 1 = t, 7 = c. Lieutenant Columbo In the Spoken Memory Championship, which is read aloud to the contestants at a rate of one per second, Paterson can remember and recite 74 backwards without error, and with much practice this number increases.

("My wife calls herself a widow by memory.") Without mnemonics, the maximum number of digits most people can store in working memory is about seven. Therefore, local telephone numbers were designed to be no more than seven digits long. Incidentally, the world record for the number of spoken digits - what psychologists call memory span - is currently 364 digits (held by Johannes Mallow from Germany).

James is quick to admit that he was first drawn to mnemonics as shortcuts to learning. “Not the best of mo-Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Increase your skills ê 197 tives – he admits. He learned the techniques and became a bit of a slacker when he went to the exam knowing that he had all the names, dates and related facts at hand. He discovered that he had no mastery of concepts, relationships and fundamental principles. He had mountain peaks, but not the mountain range, valleys, rivers or flora and fauna that make up the total picture that constitutes knowledge. Mnemonic devices are sometimes discounted as memory tricks rather than tools that fundamentally contribute to learning, and in a sense this is correct. The value of mnemonics in improving intellectual ability comes after mastering new material as students at Bellerbys use them: as handy mental pockets to store what they have learned and connect the main ideas in each pocket with a vivid cue memory, so they can easily recall them and recreate their concepts and details in depth at unexpected times when the need arises. As Matt Brown, a jet pilot, describes his hours aboard the simulator practicing the rhythms of the various hand movements required in potential emergencies, he recreates the various patterns he memorized for various eventualities, eye and hand choreography where the correct and complete sequence of instruments is paramount and switches. Every other choreography is a mnemonic for the corrective maneuver. Karen Kim is a virtuoso violinist. When we spoke to her, Kim was the second violinist in the world-renowned Parker Quartet string ensemble, which plays most of its material from memory, a rarity in classical music. The second violin is often largely the accompaniment, and the mnemonic for remembering the harmony is the main melodic theme. “You're singing a tune in your head,” says Kim, “and you know it when Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http: //ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 198 melody goes there, you change the harmony." 27 The harmonies in some pieces, such as fugues, with up to four themes revolving around the group in intricate ways, are particularly difficult to remember. "You have to know that when I play the second theme, you play the first. Memorizing fugues is very difficult. I need to get to know the role of others better. Then I begin to recognize patterns that I may have known intellectually before but didn't listen to.

Remembering harmonies is a big part of knowing the architecture of a piece, its map." When a quartet masters a new piece, they spend a lot of time playing slowly without notes, then gradually speeding up. Imagine Vince Dooley gradually synchronizing different positions on the Georgia Bulldogs football team and adjusting his plays to the new Saturday opponent. Or Mike Ebersold, a neurosurgeon examining a gunshot victim in the emergency room and methodically considering what might happen to him during the brain surgery he is about to perform. That seeing the pattern of physical movements as a kind of choreography, visualizing a complex melody as it is passed like a football from one player to another, "seeing its map": all these are mnemonic cues for memory and behavior. . With constant search, complex materials become second nature and mnemonic traces are no longer necessary: concepts such as Newton's 3 laws of motion are consolidated into mental models that are used as a kind of shorthand. Through repeated use, the brain encodes and "chunks" motor and cognitive sequences, and the ability to recall and use them becomes as automatic as habit.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Boost Your Skills ê 199 Takeaway It comes down to the simple but no less profound truth that strenuous learning changes the brain, builds new connections and possibilities. This fact—that our intellectual abilities are not fixed at birth but are largely shaped by ourselves—is a resonant response to the nagging voice that too often asks us, "Why bother?" We make an effort because the effort itself expands the limits of our capacity.

What we do shapes who we become and what we are capable of. The more we do, the more we can do. To embrace this principle and reap its benefits, one must have a lifelong growth mindset. It boils down to the simple fact that the road to complex mastery or perfect expert does not necessarily start with exceptional genes, but mostly involves certain self-discipline, persistence and perseverance; With these qualities in a healthy measure, if you want to become an expert, you probably can. Whatever you're trying to master, whether it's a poem written for a friend's birthday, the concept of classical conditioning in psychology, or the second violin movement in Hayden's Fifth Symphony, conscious memory units can help organize and organize point learning so it's ready to is retrieved until long-term, purposeful practice and repeated use form the deeper encoding and subconscious mastery that characterize a per mance expert.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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200 It doesn't matter what you do or become, if you want to be a contender, mastering study skills will get you in and stay in the game. In earlier chapters we resisted the temptation to adopt overtly prescriptive principles, feeling that if we presented the main ideas from empirical research and illustrated them well with examples, you could come to your own conclusions about how best to apply them. But early readers of these chapters urged us to seek concrete practical advice. So that's what we do here. We start with tips for students, thinking especially of high school students, students and university graduates. Then we talk to lifelong learners, teachers and finally educators.

Although the basic principles are consistent across these groups, the environments, life stages, and learning materials differ. 8 Make It Stick Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 201 To help you visualize how to apply these tips, we tell you the stories of several people who have somehow already found their way to these strategies and are using them to great effect. Learning tips for students Remember that the most successful students are those who take responsibility for their own learning and follow a simple but disciplined strategy. You may not have been taught how to do it, but you can do it, and you'll probably be surprised by the results. Accept the fact that meaningful learning is often, or even usually, somewhat difficult. You will experience setbacks. These are signs of effort, not failure. Mistakes come with striving, and striving builds knowledge. Exercise learning changes your brain, creates new connections, builds mental models, increases your abilities. The implication of this is strong:

Your intellectual abilities are largely in your own control. Knowing this makes it worth facing difficulties. Three key research strategies are outlined below. Get used to them and organize your time so that you regularly implement them. Practice finding new information from your memory What does it mean? "Practice recovery" means asking yourself questions.

Retrieving knowledge and skills from memory should become your primary learning strategy rather than rereading. How to use the recall exercise as a study strategy: As you read the text or study the lecture notes, pause occasionally to ask yourself these questions without looking at the text: What are the main ideas? What expressions or ideas are new to me? As Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 202 Can I Define It? How do these ideas relate to what I already know? Many textbooks include study questions at the end of chapters, which are good fodder for taking quizzes on your own. Generating questions for yourself and writing down your answers is also a good way to learn. Take time each week during the semester to review your course material, both the current week's work and the material covered in previous weeks. When you take the quiz, check your answers to make sure your judgments about what you know and what you don't do are accurate. Use the quiz to identify areas of poor skills and focus on learning to strengthen them. The more difficult it is for you to recall a new learning from memory, the greater the advantage. Making mistakes does not set you back as long as you check your answers and correct your mistakes. What your intuition tells you: Most students focus on highlighting and emphasizing text as well as lecture notes and slides.

They take the time to reread them and become fluent in the text and terminology because it works like science. Why memorization practice is better: After one or two text reviews, self-examination is far more effective for learning than additional re-reading. Why might that be? This is explained in more detail in Chapter 2, but here are some key points. Knowledge gained through rereading creates illusions of knowledge, but they are not reliable indicators of mastery of the material. Text proficiency has two disadvantages: it is a misleading indicator of what you have learned, and it creates the false impression that you will remember the material. In contrast, checking the main ideas and meanings behind the concepts helps to focus on the central Brownie, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 203 bids, not on side material or professor phrases. The quiz is a reliable measure of what you've learned and what you haven't mastered yet. In addition, quizze arrests forget. It is human nature to forget, but the practice of recalling new knowledge fixes it in the memory and helps to remember it in the future. Periodically practicing new knowledge and skills by taking quizzes on your own strengthens the learning process and the ability to connect them with previous knowledge. The habit of regular retrieving practice throughout the course puts an end to stuffing and stuffing all night.

You will need some study during the exam. Revising the material from the night before is much easier than learning it. How it feels: Compared to rereading, solving puzzles on your own can be awkward and frustrating, especially when it's hard to remember new knowledge. It doesn't seem as productive as re-reading class notes and underlined passages. But what you don't realize when you're struggling to acquire new knowledge is that every time you work hard to recall a memory, you're actually reinforcing it. If you relearn something after failing to remember it, you actually learn it better than if you didn't try to remember it. The effort to acquire knowledge or skills increases its duration and ability to remember it in the future. Spread Your Recovery Practices What does this mean? Staggered practice means studying information more than once but leaving a significant amount of time between practice sessions. How to use staggered practice as a learning strategy: Set up a self-paced quiz schedule that allows time to flow between study sessions. How much time? It depends on the material. If you are learning a set of names and faces, use Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 204 review them within minutes of first meeting because these associations are quickly forgotten. New material in the text may require re-examination within a day or so of the first meeting. So maybe not again for a few days or a week. As you become more confident with the material, review it once a month. During the semester, as you review new material, look back to retrieve previous material and ask yourself how this knowledge relates to what you learned later. If you are using flashcards, keep checking cards that you have answered correctly a few times. Continue mixing them into the tire until they are well mixed. Only then put them aside – but in a pile that you return to at regular intervals, perhaps every month. Everything you want to remember must be periodically recalled from memory. Another way to practice finding space is to alternate the study of two or more subjects, so that switching between them requires you to constantly refresh your mind on each subject as you return to it. What Your Intuition Tells You: Intuition tells us that we need to spend a certain amount of time on the single-minded, repetitive practice of something we want to master, a massive "practice-practice-practice" regimen that we believe is essential - useful for building mastery in some skills or learning new knowledge.

These intuitions are compelling and hard not to trust for two reasons. First, when we practice something over and over again, we often see our performance improve, which is a powerful boost to this strategy. Second, we fail to see that the benefits of monotonous, repetitive practice come from short-term memory and quickly disappear. Our inability to see how quickly the benefits disappear leaves us with the impression that mass practice is productive.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 205 Furthermore, given their misplaced faith in mass practice, most students put off review until exam time approaches and then bury themselves in the material, repeating it over and over and trying to burn it into memory . Why interval training is better: A common misconception is that you can burn something into your memory simply by repeating. Many exercises work, but only if they are separated. If you use problem solving as your primary learning strategy and plan your study courses in such a way that you tend to forget a little since your last practice, you will have to work hard to recreate what you have already learned. In effect, you are "reloading" it from your long-term memory. The effort to reconstruct the learning process makes important ideas more vivid and memorable and connects them better with other knowledge and newer knowledge. This is a powerful learning strategy.

(We'll discuss how and why this works in more detail in Chapter 4.) How it feels: Massive practice seems more productive than spaced practice, but it isn't. Interval training feels harder because you've gotten a little rusty and the material is harder to remember. You don't really seem to be able to handle it, when in fact the opposite is happening: by reconstructing learning from long-term memory, however awkward it may seem, you strengthen both your mastery and your memory.

Intertwining the study of different types of problems What does this mean? If you're trying to learn math formulas, you'll need to study more than one type at a time, alternating between different problems that require different solutions. If you study biological samples, Dutch painters, or macroeconomic principles, confuse the examples.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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(Video) How to Write a Book Review

Make It Stick ê 206 How to use interleaved practice as a learning strategy: Many textbooks are block-structured: they present a solution to a specific type of problem, such as calculating the volume of a spheroid, and provide many examples to be solved before moving on to another type of problem (calculating the volume of a cone). Block practice isn't as effective as interlaced practice, so here's what to do. Once you've organized your study plan, once you've reached the point where you understand a new type of problem and its solution, but still have a basic understanding of it, spread that type of problem out into the practice sequence, taking turns asking yourself questions about different types of problems and find appropriate solutions for each of them. If you find that you fall into self-attention, repetitive exercises on a certain topic or skill, then change it: mix in practice in other subjects, other skills, and constantly challenge your ability to recognize the type of problem and choose the right one solution. Returning to the sports example (Chapter 4), a baseball player who takes batting practice by swinging fifteen fastballs, then fifteen curl balls, then fifteen pitches will do better in practice than a player who mixes it up. But a player who asks for random pitches in practice builds his ability to decipher and react to every pitch that comes his way and becomes a better hitter. What your intuition tells you: Most students focus on many examples of one problem or type of test at a time, wanting to master that type and "take it easy" before moving on to study another type. Why interleaved practice is better: Mixing problem types and tests improves your ability to discriminate between types, identify unifying characteristics within a type, and improve your success on a later test or in real-world conditions Brown, Peter C. et al. . Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 207 where you must recognize the type of problem you are trying to solve in order to apply the correct solution. (This is explained in more detail in Chapter 3.) How it feels: Locked practice—that is, mastering all of one type of problem before moving on to another type of exercise—seems (and seems to) improve , as you develop, while stopping learning one kind to practice another seems destructive and counterproductive. Even when students achieve better mastery through interleaved practice, they retain a sense that block practice serves them better. You can experience this feeling too, but now you have the benefit of knowing that research shows that this feeling is illusory. Other Effective Learning Strategies THE SOLUTION improves your mastery of new material and multiplies the available mental cues for later recall and application (Chapter 4). What is this? Elaboration is the process of finding additional layers of meaning in new material. For example: Examples include relating the material to what you already know, explaining it to someone else in your own words, or explaining how it applies to your life outside of class. A powerful form of elaboration is the discovery of a metaphor or visual image of new material. For example, to better understand the principles of angular momentum in physics, imagine a figure skater's rotational speed accelerating as her arms are pulled toward her body. By studying the principles of heat transfer, you can better understand conduction if you imagine warming your hands around a hot cup of cocoa. In terms of radiation, imagine the sun gathering in Brown's winter cave, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 208 days. As for convection, think of the life-saving blast of air conditioning as your uncle slowly guides you through his favorite Atlanta alleyways. When learning about the structure of the atom, your physics teacher might have used the analogy of the solar system with the sun as the nucleus and the electrons spinning around like planets. The more thoroughly you can discuss how the new learning relates to what you already know, the stronger your understanding of the new learning will be and the more connections you will make to remember it later. Later in this chapter, we will tell you how biology professor Mary Pat Wenderoth encourages her students to work on themselves by assigning them to create large "summary sheets." Students are asked to illustrate on a single sheet of paper the various biological systems studied during the week and show graphically and using key words how these systems are related to each other. It is a form of elaboration that adds layers of meaning and promotes the learning of concepts, structures and interrelationships. Students unfortunate enough to be in Wenderoth's class might want to adopt such a strategy themselves.

GENERATION makes the mind more open to new knowledge. What is this? Generate is an attempt to answer a question or solve a problem before an answer or solution appears. For example: At a low level, the act of completing a missing word in a text (i.e., generating the word yourself instead of being provided by the author) results in better learning and memory of the text than simply reading the entire text. Many find that their learning is most effective when it is based on experience – i.e. learning by doing, rather than reading a text or listening to a lecture. Experiential learning is Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 209 form of generation: you take on a task, encounter a problem and consult your creativity and knowledge to try to solve it. Seek answers from experts, texts or the web when needed. By first going into the unknown and thinking about it, you have a much better chance of knowing and remembering the solution than if someone sat down and taught you first. Bonnie Blodgett, an award-winning gardener and author, provides a powerful example of generative learning in Chapter 4. You can practice generating while reading new class material by trying to explain in advance the key ideas you expect to find in the material , and how you expect them to relate to your prior knowledge. So read the material and see if you were right. With some initial effort, it will be easier for you to understand the content and usefulness of the material you read, even if it differs from your expectations. If you're in a science or math course and you're learning different types of solutions to different types of problems, try solving those problems before you go to class. Department of Physics at Washington University in St. Louis now requires students to solve problems before class. Some students are offended by the argument that it is the professor's job to teach the solution, but professors understand that when students struggle with content, classroom learning is stronger.

REFLECTION is a combination of search practice and study that adds layers to your learning and strengthens your skills. What is this? Reflection involves taking a few minutes to review what you learned in a recent class or experience and asking yourself questions. What went well? What could have gone better? What other knowledge or experience does this remind you of? What You May Need to Learn Better Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 210 mastery, or what strategies can you use next time to get better results? For example, biology professor Mary Pat Wenderoth assigns weekly low-stakes "pedagogical paragraphs" in which students are asked to reflect on what they have learned in the previous week and characterize how learning in the classroom relates to life outside the classroom. This is a good model for students to use and a more fruitful learning strategy than spending hours transcribing lecture slides or class notes literally into a notebook.

CALIBRATION is the act of adjusting your assessments of what you know and what you don't do with objective feedback to avoid the illusions of mastery that surprise many students during a test. What is this? Everyone is subject to many cognitive delusions, some of which are described in Chapter 5. Mistaking text fluency for mastery of its content is just one example. Calibration is simply the act of using an objective instrument to remove illusions and adjust the assessment to better reflect reality. The goal is to ensure that your sense of what you know and can do is accurate. For example: Airline pilots use flight instruments to know when their perceptual systems are misleading them about critical factors, such as whether the plane is flying level. Students take quizzes to see if they know as much as they think they do. It is worth making clear here how important it is to answer the questions you ask yourself in quizzes. Too often we look at a question on a practice test and say to ourselves, yes, I know that, and then scroll down the page without bothering to write the answer. If you don't give an answer, you may be under the illusion that you know when you would actually have difficulty giving an accurate or complete answer. Treat Work - Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 211 treat tests as tests, check your answers and focus on learning in areas where you are not up to snuff.

Mnemonic devices help you retrieve what you have learned and store any information in memory (Chapter 7). what are they? "Mnemonic" comes from the Greek word for memory, and mnemonic devices are like mental filing cabinets.

They provide convenient ways to store information and find it again when you need it. For example: Here is a very simple mnemonic tool that some school children learn to remember the Great Lakes of the United States in geographic order, from east to west: Old elephants have moldy skin. Mark Twain used mnemonics to teach his children the order of the kings and queens of England, by marking the order and length of their reigns along the winding driveway to his estate, walking the children along it and developing pictures and telling stories. Psychology students at Bellerbys College, Oxford, use mnemonic devices called memory palaces to organize what they have learned and must be prepared to explain this in A-level essay exams. Mnemonics are not tools for learning per se, but for creating mental structures that make it easy to retrieve what you have learned.

Here are the short stories about two students who used these strategies to get to the top of their classes. Michael Young, Medical Student Michael Young is a successful fourth-year medical student at Georgia Regents University who rose from the ground up by changing the way he studied.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 212 Young entered medical school without the usual foundation of pre-med classes. All his classmates had backgrounds in biochemistry, pharmacology and the like. Medical school is in any case very difficult, but even more so with Young because of the lack of foundation. The scale of the challenge before him suddenly became apparent. Although he spent every spare minute studying for his classes, he barely scored a 65 on his first exam. "Honestly, I was kicked in the ass," he says. "I was shocked by it. I couldn't believe how hard it was. It was unlike any other school I'd been to before. I mean, you come to class and on a typical day you get about four hundred PowerPoint wears, and that's a lot of information. 1 Since spending more time studying wasn't an option, Young had to find a way to make his studies more efficient. He began reading empirical research on learning and became very interested in the test effect This is how we first learned about him: He emailed us with questions about the practice of remote sensing in a medical school.

Recalling this stressful time, Young says, “I just didn't want to hear anyone's opinion on how to study.

Everyone has an opinion. I wanted real data, real research on this." You might wonder how he got into medical school without taking medical classes. He earned a master's degree in psychology and worked in a clinical setting, eventually as a substance abuse counselor. He settled with many doctors and slowly began to wonder if he would be happier in medicine. Has he missed his calling? "I didn't consider myself particularly intelligent, but I wanted to do more with my life and that thought left me never." One day he went to the biology department at his local university, Columbus State in Columbus, Georgia, and asked what courses he needed to become a doctor. laughed. "They said, 'Well, no Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 213 from this school become a doctor. People from the University of Georgia and Georgia Tech go to medical school, we haven't had anyone in medical school in a decade." For example, in terms of biology requirements, the only thing he could take at Columbus State were fishing classes. That was his biology course.

Within a year, he had received the medical training available at the school, so he appeared for the Medical College entrance exam for a month and managed to get a good enough score. He joined the Georgia Regents. At that point he was very far from over the hump. Since the first exam had given him too much time off, the road before him was straight uphill. If he hoped to climb, something in his study habits must have changed. What changed? He explains it this way: I loved to read, but that was all I knew how to study. I just wanted to read the material and not know what to do with it. So if I read it and it didn't stick in my mind, I didn't know what to do with it. What I've learned from reading the research [on learning] is that you have to do more than just passively absorb information.

The most important thing, of course, is to find a way to retrieve the information from memory, because that is what you will be asked to do on the test. If you can't do it while studying, you won't be able to do it on the test.

He became more aware of it while studying. "I wanted to stop. "Okay, what did I just read?" What's that about? I had to think about it. "Well, I think it goes like this: the enzyme does this, and then it does that." And then I back and see if I'm way off base or on the right track. This process wasn't a natural fit. "It makes you uncomfortable at first. If you stop and review what you are reading, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 214 and test it, it takes much more time. If you have a test in a week and so much to discuss, it makes you nervous to slow down.” But the only way he knew to cover more material, his long-standing habit of spending many hours rereading, was not to produce the expected results. As difficult as it was, he forced himself to practice fetching at least long enough to see if it worked. "You just have to trust the process, and that was the biggest obstacle for me to trust it. And it ended up being really good for me." Very Good By the time he started his sophomore year, Young had moved his grades up from the bottom two hundred students in his class to join the top, and has remained there ever since.

Young talked to us about how he adapted the principles of interval search and compilation to medical school, where the challenges come from both the sheer volume of material to remember and the need to learn how complex systems work and how they fit together. . with other systems. His comments are instructive. Deciding what's important: "If it's lecture material and you have four hundred PowerPoint slides, you don't have time to practice every little detail. So you have to say, 'Well, it's important and it isn't." Medical education is about how you spend your time." When you force yourself to answer the question, "When you go back and review, instead of just re-reading, see if you remember what you learned. Do I remember what this case was about ?You always check yourself first. And if you can't remember, you go back, look at it, and try again. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 215 On finding the right gap: “I was aware of the spacing effect and I knew that the longer you wait to practice memorizing, the better it is for your memory, but there is also a trade-off of how successful you are. is when you try to remember it. For example, when you have these long enzyme names and this step-by-step process of what an enzyme does, maybe if you learn ten steps of what an enzyme does, you stop and think, do I remember what the ten steps do is? Once I found a good strategy for how much to practice in the room and started seeing consistent results, it was easy to start there because then could I just trusted the process and was sure it would work." On slowing down to find meaning: Young also slowed his reading pace by thinking about meaning and using expansions to better understand and remember it. "When I read that dopamine is released from the ventral tegmental area, it didn't mean much to me." The point is to prevent the words from "slipping through the brain". To understand the meaning of the dopamine statement, he dug deeper, identified a structure in the brain and studied its images, capturing the idea in his mind. "Just visualizing what it looks like and where it is [in the anatomy] really helps me remember it." He says there isn't enough time to know everything about everything, but taking a break to make it meaningful helps keep it that way. Young's impressive perfection was not lost on his professors or colleagues. He was invited to teach students struggling with difficulties, which is an honor for a few. He taught them these techniques and they improved their grades. "What amazes me is how much people are interested in this. For example, in medical school I talked about it with all my friends and now they are really into it. People want to know how to learn." Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ liberty/retail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 216 Timothy Fellows, Introduction to Psychology Stephen Madigan, a professor at the University of Southern California, was amazed by the behavior of a student in his Psychology 100 course. "It's a tough course," Madigan says. “I use the hardest and most advanced textbook and the material is just non-stop. After three quarters of the class, I noticed that a student named Timothy Fellows was scoring 90 to 95 percent in all of his classes—exams, essays, short answer questions, multiple choice questions. They were just extraordinary characters. Such good students - yes, he is definitely a special person. Then one day I took him aside and said, "Can you tell me about your study habits?" 2. It was 2005. Madigan didn't know Fellows outside of class, but she saw him around campus and at football games enough to notice he had a life outside of his academics.

"Psychology wasn't his major, but it was a subject he cared about and he just used all his abilities." Madigan still has a list of study habits compiled by fellows, and she still shares it with incoming students to this day. Among the most important were these:

• Always reads before lectures • Anticipates test questions and answers while reading • Answers rhetorical questions in your head during lectures to see if he remembers reading • Skims textbooks, finds terms he doesn't remember or doesn't know, and relearns from these terms • Copies bold terms and their definitions into a textbook and makes sure he/she understands them • Takes a practice test provided online by his/her professor; on this basis he discovers which concepts he does not know and decides to learn them. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 217 • Reorganizes the course information into a study guide of your own design • Writes down concepts that are detailed or important, hangs them above the bed and occasionally checks them on yourself • Separates revision and practice for the duration of the course Vaner Fellows' learning experiences are a good example of doing what works and sticking to it, so that practice is spread over time and learning is firmly anchored during exam time. Tips for Lifelong Learners The learning strategies we just outlined for students work for anyone of any age. But they are centered around teaching in the classroom. Lifelong learners apply the same principles in a number of less structured environments. Of course, in some sense we are all lifelong learners. From the moment we are born, we begin to explore the world around us through experimentation, trial and error, and random encounters with challenges that require us to remember what we did the last time we were in a similar situation. In other words, the techniques of generation, displaced practice, and the like that we introduce in this book are organic (even if they are counterintuitive), and it is not surprising that many people have already discovered their power in pursuing interests and careers, that requires continuous learning. Recovery Practice Nathaniel Fuller is a professional actor at the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis. We became interested in him after dinner, when the famous Guthrie's artistic director Joe Dowling, upon hearing about our work, immediately suggested Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 218 we interview Fuller. Fuller seems to be able to learn the lines and movements of the role for which he is understudied so thoroughly that he can take the scene at the last minute with great success, despite not having had the benefit of learning and practice it in the normal way. Fuller is a seasoned stage professional who has honed his role learning techniques for many years. He is often cast in the lead role; other times he may play several minor characters in a play while not studying the lead role. How does he do it? When he starts a new script, Fuller puts it in a binder, going over and underlining all his lines. “I'm finding out how much I still have to learn. I try to estimate how much I can learn in a day, and then I try to start early enough to learn it.” 3 Underlining his lines also makes them easier to find and gives him a sense of structure, so this use of underlining is quite different from what students do in class when they mark just to reread. "You get the shape of the line and the way it works back and forth." Fuller uses restorative practice in various forms. First, he takes a blank sheet of paper paper and covers the page of the manuscript. He draws it down, silently mirroring the lines of the characters he plays to himself, because those lines point to his own, and the emotions in them are somehow mirrored by his own character. He hides his own line and tries to say it out loud from memory. He checks his accuracy. If he makes a mistake, he covers it up and says it again. When he pronounces it correctly, he reveals the next fragment and moves on. "Half knowing your role is not only knowing what to say, but also knowing when to say it. I don't have an unusual memory brain, but one of the keys I've found is that I have to try my Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 219 is best said without looking at it. I have to fight this battle to remember it. "I'll work like crazy. When I get to the point where I think the profits are going down, I'll quit. I'll be back the next day and I won't remember. Then a lot of my friends will panic. I just think it's there now, next time it's a little better back. Then I work on a new piece until I get to the end of the piece." As the script progresses, constantly shifting from familiar pages and scenes to newer material, the play takes shape like threads added to a growing tapestry, each scene gaining meaning through the previous one, expanding the story in turn. When it comes to an end, it rehearses in reverse, going from the lesser-known end scene to the more familiar one that precedes it, and then back to the end scene again. Then he goes to the part that precedes both of these scenes and rehearses for the end. His practice goes back this way until he came to the beginning of art. This back-and-forth work helps him combine lesser-known materials with more familiar ones, deepening his mastery of the role as a whole. Learning the lines is visual (as they're laid out in the script), but, he says, it's also "a body action, a muscle action, so I try to say the character's lines, understand how they feel." Fuller explores the written language, the texture of words and expressions in terms of how they reveal meaning. He works to discover the way the character behaves, moves around the scene, facial expressions – all aspects reveal the hidden emotions that drive every scene. These kinds of development help him develop an emotional approach to the role and a deeper relationship with the character.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 220 Also increases his fetch practice. Instead of a written script, he now speaks every line of the other actors in the play into a palm-sized digital recorder, saying it in "feel" as best he can tell. He hides the recorder in his hand. His thumb knows where to find the controls. The thumb presses play and Fuller hears the character's lines followed by his line; thumb presses "pause" and says his line from memory. If in doubt about his accuracy, he checks the script, recreates a passage if necessary, says his lines, and then continues with the scene. While he studies the role before the director and cast practice blocking (how the actors move in relation to each other and the stage), Fuller practices at home, imagining his living room as a stage and blocking manner. can be unfolded. Where he walks through scenes with his recorder, listens to other people's lines and speaks his own, he moves around the imaginary stage, bringing the role physically, reacting to imaginary props. When an actor he studies is rehearsing, Fuller watches from behind theater chairs at the back of the room as he walks through the barricade as the actors rehearse on stage. He continues to practice at home later, adapting the imaginary scene in his living room to the already established lockdown. Fuller's learning process is a seamless blend of desirable difficulties: search practice, spacing, interleaving, generation (soul, behavior, motivation, and his character's characteristics), and elaboration. Through these techniques, he learns the role and the many levels of meaning that make the performance come alive for himself and his audience.

A generation In 2013, John McPhee published an article in the New Yorker about writer's block. At the age of eighty-two, McPhee of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 221 made his remarks from a high vantage point, at the height of an illustrious career that has earned him numerous awards and recognition as a pioneer of creative nonfiction.

Writer's block is a seemingly insurmountable barrier that must be overcome if you hope to engage with the subject. Writing, like any art form, is an iterative process of creation and discovery. Many aspiring writers fail to find their voice for the simple reason that unless they are clear about what they want to say, they cannot bring themselves to dive into the subject. McPhee's solution to this problem? He writes a letter to his mother. He tells her how unhappy he feels, what hopes he has for the subject he wants to write about (bear), but that he has no idea how to go about it and really seems like he's not meant to be after all to be a writer. He wants to describe the size of the bear and how lazy he is, prefers to sleep fifteen hours a day and so on.

"And then you go back and remove the 'Dear Mother' and all the moaning and groaning and just keep the bear." McPhee's first draft is "a terrible blur". "Then put it aside. You get in your car and drive home. Along the way, your mind keeps jumping for words. You come up with a better way to say something, a good wording to solve a problem. Without a draft - if it didn't exist - you obviously wouldn't think of ways to make it better.

In short, you can only actually write two or three hours a day, but your mind is somehow working on it twenty-four hours a day - yes, while you sleep - but only if there is a draft or an earlier version. Until it exists, writing hasn't really begun." 4 That's the bottom line: learning works the same way as McPhee's "terrible talk." Your understanding of unfamiliar material often begins to feel clumsy and approximate. But once you engage your mind to try to make sense of something new, your mind will begin to weave the problem. You don't involve Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http:/ /ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Keep your mind glued by reading text over and over or passively watching PowerPoint slides. You engage in this by making an effort to explain the material yourself in your own words - connecting the facts, bringing them to life, relating them to what you already know. Learning is like writing an act of engagement.

Struggling with a puzzle sparks your creative juices, prompts the mind to look for similarities and metaphors from elsewhere in your experience, knowledge that can be transferred and applied here. It makes you hungry for a solution. And the solution, once you get to it, is more deeply embedded in your previous knowledge and skills than something pasted onto the surface of your brain by PowerPoint. So take a page from McPhee: When you want to master something new, put away the whining and fight the bear. Reflection In Chapter 2, we share how Mayo Clinic neurosurgeon Mike Ebersold uses the habit of reflection to improve his skills in the operating room. Reflection includes retrieval (What did I do? How does it work?) and generation (How can I do better next time?), appeals to imagery and mental rehearsal (What if I take a needle less bite??). It was this habit of reflection that led him to devise a surgical solution to repair the delicate sinus structure at the back of the skull, which could not be tied because the structure is somewhat flat and would tear during suturing. Georgia Bulldogs football coach Vince Dooley (Chapter 3) helped his players use reflection and mental rehearsal to learn the rules of the game and adjust to next Saturday's game. Minneapolis police officer David Garman (Chapter 5) uses reflection to perfect his undercover strategies. The power of reflection as a learning technique is evident throughout the work of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 223 Personal Diary Ultimate Duty by Captain Chesley Sullenberger. "Sully" is a pilot who successfully and miraculously ditched US Airways Flight 1549 in the Hudson River in 2009. As we read his autobiography, we see how he refined his understanding of flight and control of his aircraft through training, personal experience and close observation of others. The process began from his earliest days behind the wheel of a single-engine jet, continued through the jet fighter years, the study of plane crashes and the detailed analysis of the few available examples of commercial aircraft being abandoned. airplanes, where he devoted special attention to lessons in pitch, speed and horizontal wings. Captain Sullenberger's development shows us that the habit of reflection is more than just an inventory of personal experiences or the observed experiences of others. At its most powerful, this habit involves engaging the mind through creation, visualization, and mental rehearsal. Background When we met pianist Thelma Hunter, she was learning four new pieces for an upcoming permance concert: pieces by Mozart, Faure, Rachmaninoff and William Bolcom. Hunter, 88, won first prize as a pianist at age five in New York City and has been performing ever since. She claims that she is not a child prodigy, or even particularly famous, but she has accomplished. In addition to a busy life raising six children with her husband Sam, a cardiothoracic surgeon, Hunter studied, taught and performed at the piano for many years, and she is still in the game, sought after and geared for a lifetime of keyboard pleasure. Layering the new science with multiple layers of meaning was central to Hunter's methods and illustrates how a study by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 224 improves learning and memory. When he studies a new score, he learns it physically through fingering, phonetically in the sound, visually in the notes of the score, and intellectually in the way he practices the transitions. Hunter made some concessions to age. She never warmed up before playing, but now she does. "My stamina isn't as good as it used to be. My range isn't as big. Now, if I remember something, I have to think about it. I never had to, I just worked through every aspect of it, and rote learning came." 5 Visualizes the score and creates mental margins. "When I'm practicing, I sometimes say it out loud, 'At this point, up an octave,' but in my mind I'm also picturing that place on the notes." In comments that resonate with John McPhee's observations about writing, Hunter says that the moment the song is almost memorized, "I'm driving and I can think about the whole song as I'm doing. The shape of it, like I'm a conductor and thinks, ``Oh, this part makes more sense if I speed it up.'' I have to practice it to master it faster." It's amazing things I can think about away from the piano." Hunter's rehearsal schedule involves working on new pieces every day, slowing down to analyze difficult passages, and since he now often performs with a cellist and violinist, the band works on pieces together to synchronize their individual interpretations In Chapter 7, we describe Anders Ericsson's research into how experts, through thousands of hours of solitary, thoughtful practice, create libraries of mental models that they can use to address a wide range of situations they encounter in their field . Hunter describes experiences that seem to manifest Ericsson's theory. Sometimes he has to sit at the keyboard and devise a finger plan to play a difficult passage. Oddly enough, he says, after Brown left the job, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick : The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 225 for a week, she sits down and recreates it using a finger pattern she hadn't planned, but one that feels completely natural and familiar to her. This is a paradox, but perhaps not entirely surprising. She credits her subconscious, drawing on years of playing, for finding a more fluid solution than the one she came up with by laying it out on the keyboard. But perhaps it was the strain on the keyboards, like McPhee wrestling the bear, that made her search the memory cabinets for something more elegant and natural to suit the occasion. Tips for teachers Here again we are wary of being too prescriptive. Each teacher has to find the right thing in his class. But specifics can be useful. Here are some basic strategies that we believe will help students become stronger learners in the classroom. Here are brief descriptions of what some teachers are already doing in this direction.

We hope that among the recommendations and examples you will find practical ideas that you can adapt and implement. Explain to students how learning works. Students live under the influence of many myths and delusions about learning that lead them to make poor choices about taking intellectual risks and when and how to learn. The teacher's proper role is to explain what empirical research has found about how people learn, so that the student can better manage their own education. In particular, students must be helped to understand basic ideas such as: • Some types of learning difficulties help consolidate learning and remember it better.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Let it stick ê 226 • When learning is easy, it is often superficial and quickly forgotten.

• Not all of our intellectual abilities are built-in. In fact, when learning is challenging, it changes the brain, creates new connections, and increases intellectual capacity.

• You learn better by tackling new problems before you see a solution than the other way around.

• To excel in any field, you must strive to exceed your current skill level.

• Persecution by its very nature often results in mistakes, and mistakes often provide the basic information needed to adjust strategies for coping.

These themes run throughout the book and are covered in detail in Chapters 4 and 7.

Teach Students to Study Students are generally not taught how to study, and when they do, they are often given bad advice. As a result, they tend to engage in activities that are far from optimal, such as rereading, heavy exercise, and cramming. At the beginning of this chapter, we present effective learning strategies. Students will benefit from teachers who help them understand these strategies and stick with them long enough to experience benefits that may seem dubious at first. Create Desirable Difficulty in the Classroom Use frequent quizzes where practical to help students consolidate learning and break forgetfulness. Make Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 227 basic rules accepted by students and by you.

Students find quizzes more acceptable when they are predictable and the single quiz rate is low. Teachers find quizzes more acceptable when they are simple, quick, and do not lead to negotiations about makeup quizzes. (For example, consider how Kathleen McDermott, whose work is described below, uses daily quizzes in her college classes on human learning and memory.) Create learning tools that include search, generation, and development practices. These may be exercises that require students to struggle with trying to solve a new type of problem before they arrive in class where the solution is taught; practice tests that students can download and use to review materials and calibrate their judgments about what they know and don't know; written exercises that require students to reflect on material from previous lessons and relate it to other knowledge or other aspects of their lives; exercises that require students to generate short statements that summarize key ideas from recent material covered in a text or lecture. Make quizzes and exercises count towards your course grade, even if they are for very low stakes. Students in classes where exercises affect grades in a subject learn better than students in classes where exercises are the same but have no consequences. Design quizzes and activities to revisit concepts and learning covered earlier in the semester so that inquiry practice continues and learning accumulates, helping students construct more complex mental models, reinforce conceptual learning, and develop a deeper understanding of the interconnectedness of ideas or systems . (For example, read in Chapter 2 how Andy Sobel uses low-stakes cumulative quizzes in his college-level political economy course.) Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 228 Arrange, interweave and vary topics and subjects covered in class so that students often shift gears as they have to 'reload' what they already know about each topic to find out how the new material relate or differ.

Be transparent Help your students understand how you have included the desired difficulty in your lessons and why. Be open about some of the frustrations and difficulties this kind of learning entails and explain why it is worth persevering with. Consider asking them to read Michael Young's medical student profile earlier in this chapter, which vividly describes the difficulties and ultimate benefits of these strategies. Mary Pat Wenderoth, Professor of Biology, University of Washington Mary Pat Wenderoth introduces desirable difficulties in her classes to help students master the tasks. He also works to help students learn how to manage their own learning effectively – how to be a skilled learner in the professional they want to become. Along this path, he faces another challenge by helping students learn to assess how well they understand the course material in Bloom's Learning Taxonomy and how to rise to levels of synthesis and assessment. Bloom's taxonomy classifies cognitive learning into six levels. It was developed in 1956 by a committee of educators led by psychologist Benjamin Bloom. The six levels range from acquiring knowledge (the most basic level) to developing an understanding of basic facts and ideas, the ability to apply learning to problem solving, the ability to analyze ideas and relationships to draw conclusions, be-Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 229 the ability to synthesize knowledge and ideas in new ways and, at its most sophisticated level, the ability to use learning to evaluate opinions and ideas and to make judgments based on evidence and objective criteria. These are some of the main techniques that Wenderoth uses.

Transparency. First, Wenderoth teaches his students about the effect of testing, the principle of desirable difficulty, and the dangers of the "illusion of knowledge." She promises that her instructional philosophy will be transparent and will model these principles in class. As she recently explained to us, "The whole idea of the testing effect is that you learn more by testing yourself than by rereading. Well, it's very hard to get students to do that because they've been trained for so long time to read and read a book." 6 I can't count how many times students come up to me and show me their textbook, which is highlighted in four different colors. I tell them, "I can see you've done a lot of work and you really want to succeed in this class because you have a blue, yellow, orange, and green highlighter in your notebook." And then I have to try to tell them that the extra time spent on it after the first time was a waste of time. They say, "How is that possible?" I say, "What you need to do is read a little and then test yourself," but they don't really know how to do that. So I model it for them in class. Every five minutes or so, I ask a question about the material we just covered, and I watch them begin to review their notes. I say, "Stop it. Don't look at your notes. Just take a moment to think about it." I tell them our brains are like a forest and your memory is out there. You are here and the memory is there. The more times you find your way to this Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 230, the better the path, so the next time you need storage, it will be easier to find. But as soon as you pull out your notes, you have a short way to go. You are no longer looking for a way, someone has shown you the way.

On another occasion, Wenderoth asks the class a question and asks them to think about it. He asks the students to write three possible answers on the board in front and then vote on which answer they think is correct by raising the number of fingers corresponding to the answer on the board. He will instruct students to find someone with fingers "different from yours, talk to him and decide who has the right answer." Wenderoth gives his students a new way to think about learning and gives them a new vocabulary to describe failure. When students stumble over an exam question, they often accuse the test of having trick questions. When a student blames the test, he says that it is not a good basis for solving the problem. But now students come to her after a disappointing exam and say: “I have the delusion that I know. How can I improve?” This is a problem Wenderoth can help with. Test groups. Wenderoth has turned class "study groups" into "test groups". In a study group, the person who knows the most speaks and the others listen. Emphasis is placed on remembering things. But in the test group, everyone struggles with the question without opening the manual. "Everybody has some information, and you talk to your colleagues and find out." Emphasis is placed on exploration and understanding. Wenderoth will ask the students in the test group which ideas are not clear to them. He will then send a student to Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 231 whiteboard to try to explain the concept. As the student struggles, perhaps by piecing together bits of answers they know, the rest of the group is instructed to test them by asking questions whose answers will lead them to a larger concept. All manuals remain closed at all times.

Free withdrawal. Wenderoth assigns her students to spend ten minutes at the end of each day sitting with a blank sheet of paper on which they write everything they remember from class. They must sit for ten minutes. He warns that it will be uncomfortable, after two minutes they will run out of ideas, but they must persevere. After ten minutes they have to go to their class notes and find out what they remembered and what they forgot and focus on the material they forgot. What they get out of this activity guides their notes and questions for the next lesson. Wenderoth states that free recall practice helps students advance their learning and develop a more complex understanding of how material is connected. Overview sheet. Every Monday, Wenderoth students must turn in a single-size worksheet on which they have illustrated the previous week's material in the form of key idea drawings, arrows, and diagrams.

It teaches physiology, which is how things work, so summaries take the form of large cartoons filled with explanations, zooms, directional arrows and the like. The worksheets help her students synthesize information from the week and reflect on how the systems are connected: "This causes what causes what affects them. We use a lot of arrows in physiology. Students can work together, I don't care. It sheet , they bring, just have to be their own." Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 232 Learning Episode. Occasionally on Fridays, if he doesn't feel like he's overburdening them, Wenderoth assigns students to write "educational paragraphs," for which he poses a question and asks students to prepare a five- or six-answer sentence. The question might be, "How is the digestive system similar to the respiratory system?" Or “You just got your tests back; what would you do differently next time?" The idea is to stimulate search and reflection and capture a week's learning before it is lost to the myriad other concerns and distractions of college life. "Over the years I have found that if I don't do something before the test, then they don't do anything until the day before the test." Study paragraphs also give her science major more practice writing a piece of clear prose. He reads the answers and comments on them in class so students know they are being read. Blooms taxonomy for learning. To remove some of the abstraction from Bloom's taxonomy, Wenderoth translated its class materials into different levels of taxonomy in the answer key of its tests. This means that each question has a different answer for each level of taxonomy:

one that reflects knowledge-level learning, a more precise answer that reflects understanding, an even more complex answer that reflects analysis, and so on. When students get their test back, they also receive an answer key and are asked to identify where their answer fell in the taxonomy and think about what they need to know to answer at a higher level of learning. Closing the science achievement gap. Wenderoth and her colleagues experimented with classroom structure and active learning principles to help close the science achievement gap. Poorly Prepared Students Rarely Survive Entrance - Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê Science courses at level 233. As a result, even students whose interests and talents could lead them to a successful career in the sciences never walk through the door. For some reason, these students have no high school or home life history to learn how to succeed in this very demanding academic environment. "For most of us who found our way in science," says Wenderoth, "every time we fell down, there was someone nearby to help us up or say, 'Here's how to get up.' In their experiments, Wenderoth and her colleagues compared the results of "low-structure" classes (traditional lectures and high-stakes midterm and final exams) with "high-structure" classes (low-stakes daily and weekly exercises, constantly practicing the analytical skills needed to pass exams.) They also teach students the importance of having a "growth mindset" (see Carol Dweck's work, discussed in Chapter 7)—that is, learning is hard work, and struggle increases intellectual ability. Results? Highly structured classes in an introductory biology course significantly reduced student failure rates compared to low-structured classes—narrowing the gap between poorly prepared students and their better-prepared peers while showing exam results at higher levels of Bloom's Taxonomy. Furthermore, it is not only whether the student does the practical exercises that matters. In classes where exercises count toward the course grade, even at very low rates, students achieve more success during the semester compared to students in classes where the exercises are the same but do not affect the grade. "We talk to students about habits of mind," Wenderoth says. “That's the discipline you have to have in order to Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 234 to succeed in science. They never believed that every discipline has its own culture. We teach them to think like the professionals they want to become. And when they fall, we show them how to get back up." 7 Michael D. Matthews, Professor of Psychology, United States Military Academy, West Point West Point's educational philosophy is based on a teaching system called the Thayer Method, developed for nearly two one hundred years ago by the academy's early superintendent, Sylvanus Thayer. The method provides very specific learning goals for each course, places responsibility for achieving those goals on the student, and includes quizzes and recitation at each class meeting. Students' grades at the academy are based on three pillars of education: academic, military and physical. Mike Matthews, a professor of engineering psychology at the academy, says the students' workload is enormous, more than the hours available to them. To survive at the academy, West Point cadets must develop the ability to focus on what matters most and let the rest fall by the wayside.“It's about having very high expectations on many dimensions and keeping them really busy,” says Matthews. In fact, as dazzling as it sounds, Matthews will tell a student, "If you've read every word in this chapter, you're not very effective." It's not about "rolling your eyes at the words". You start with questions and read for answers. 8 There are few or no lectures in Matthews courses. Classes begin with a quiz on learning objectives from the assigned reading. From there, the students come "down to the blackboards" for many days. Classrooms have tiles on all four walls, and a group of students is sent to each board to work with Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 235 in response to a question posed by a professor. These are higher-order questions than the daily quiz, requiring students to integrate ideas from the reading and apply them at a conceptual level. It is a form of practice for recovery, generation and teaching of peers. A student is selected from each group to recite to the class and explain how the group answered the question, and then the group's work is critiqued. All class meetings focus on constructs rather than facts, and on days when students do not go to the blackboards, they engage in other forms of practice, demonstration or group work for understanding and articulation. the larger concepts underlying this case. Clear learning objectives before each class, combined with daily quizzes and active problem solving with feedback, keep students focused, attentive and working hard. One of the most important skills learned at West Point is something learned outside the classroom: how to azimuth shoot. This is a skill used to keep one's bearings in unfamiliar terrain. You climb a tree or at ground level and spot a distant landmark in the direction you are heading. With a compass in hand, you notice how many degrees from north your landmark is. Then you go down into the bushes and continue working in that direction. You stop occasionally to fire off an azimuth and make sure you're on track. The quiz is a way of taking an azimuth in the classroom: Are you getting the mastery you need to get to where you want to be? Matthews had the privilege of seeing two of his students win Rhodes Scholarships. The last was Cadet Kiley Hunkler (now Second Lieutenant Hunkler). Hunkler will spend the next two years at Oxford University before graduating from Johns Hopkins Medical School. It was Hunkler who told us about azimuth shooting. “Everything in the academy is based on self-responsibility, taking responsibility for Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 236 finding your own way to your goal, she said. 9 For example, the Entrance Examination for the Medical School consists of four main subject blocks: Reading, Chemistry, Physiology and Writing. For each of these blocks, Hunkler created the learning objectives in her head that she considered most important and then chose to answer them as she studied. "Every three days I did a practice test, saw what I did wrong and corrected." Shoots in its azimuth. "A lot of students put off studying for months to memorize everything, but for me it was more about understanding the concepts. So my azimuth check would be OK, what's the point of this question, what's the broader theme here, and fits with what I have outlined in this section.One of the authors of this book (Roediger) attended Riverside Military Academy High School in Gainesville, Georgia.

Riverside used a form of the Thayer method where students had daily quizzes, problem sets, or assignments to complete in class. The range of skills of these junior cadets was much more varied than at the elite United States Military Academy at West Point, but Thayer's method worked well. In fact, such methods, which involve daily participation, can especially help students who are unwilling to work hard on their own outside of class. Thayer's method gives them a strong incentive to stick with it and mirrors what Mary Pat Wenderoth (above) found in her empirical research:

that highly structured classrooms help students who lack a history of using effective techniques and learning habits to develop and succeed in a rigorous setting. Kathleen McDermott, a psychology professor at Washington University in St. Louis. Kathleen McDermott completes daily simple quizzes as part of a university course on human learning and memory. This is Class Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 237 of twenty-five students, meeting twice a week for fourteen weeks, no semesters or final exam. In the last three to five minutes of each class, he completes a four-item quiz. The questions hit the highlights of the lecture, the readings or both. If students have understood the material, they will answer all four questions correctly, but will need to think twice to do so. Everything covered in the course so far is fair game for the quiz, and she sometimes draws on previous material that she thinks students haven't fully understood and should review. McDermott makes the rules of the game very clear at the beginning of the semester. It presents research on learning and testing effectiveness and explains why quizzes are useful even when they don't seem useful. Students can skip four quizzes per term. On the other hand, absences do not have to be excused, and missed tests will not be made up. Students are initially unhappy with the quiz system, and in the first few weeks of the semester, McDermott will receive emails from students explaining why they had legitimate excuses for absence and should be allowed to make up for a missed quiz.

She repeats the conditions: four free absences, no make-up. McDermott says the quizzes encourage student participation in class and allow students to contribute to their grades on a daily basis if they answer four out of four questions correctly. At the end of the semester, her students say the quizzes helped them keep up with the course and recognize when they were off course and needed to catch up. "The key to quizzes is to make the ground rules very clear to the student and easy for the professor to follow," says McDermott. "As a student, you are either there and you take it, or you don't. For the professor, no hassle with makeup tests. 10 The tests make up a total of 20 percent of the student's grade in the course. In addition, McDermott to Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 238 midterm and final exams. The last two exams are cumulative. Cumulative exams reinforce the learning process by requiring students to engage in staggered revisions. Columbia, Illinois, Public School District As mentioned in Chapter 2, we worked with teachers at a middle school in Columbia, Illinois to test the effects of incorporating low-stakes quizzes into the curriculum. Regular quizzes and other forms of reminders were adopted by school teachers who participated in the study and by others who did not but observed positive results. The initial research project has since been extended to history and science classes at a district high school, where inquiry practices are often used both to enhance learning and to help teachers focus instruction on areas where student understanding and persistence should be emphasized. . improved. The Illinois State Board of Education has adopted new math and English standards for K-12 education under the Common Core State Standards Initiative, led by the National Governors Association and approved by the National Education Secretary. The Common Core sets the college and career readiness standards that students must be able to meet after high school. The Columbia School District, like others, is redesigning its curriculum and exams to be more rigorous and engage students in more writing and analysis to promote higher-level understanding, reasoning, and problem-solving skills that will enable students to meet state standards. An example of this review is the vertical adjustment of the science curriculum so that students are re-exposed to the subject at different stages of the school. Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 239 careers. The result is a more scattered and interwoven instruction.

For example, in physical science, middle school students can learn to recognize the six basic machines (inclined plane, wedge, screw, lever, wheel and axle, and pulley) and how they work, and then they can return to these concepts in subsequent grades, dive into in basic physics and how to combine and apply these basic tools to solve various problems. Tips for Educators Here are some ways that educators apply the same principles as those who teach in schools in a variety of less structured and non-classroom settings. On-the-Job Training Licensed professionals in many fields must earn continuing education credits to keep their skills up to date and maintain their licenses. As pediatric neurologist Doug Larsen describes in Chapter 3, this type of medical training is typically centered around a weekend symposium, due to participants' busy schedules, held at a hotel or resort, and organized around meals and PowerPoint presentations. In other words, the strategy of recovery practice, spacing and interleaving is nowhere to be seen. Participants are lucky to retain much of what they learn.

If you find yourself in this scenario, there are a few things to consider. First, get a copy of the presentation materials and use them to test key ideas, just as Nathaniel Fuller asks himself about plot, lines, character layers. Second, plan to send emails to your inbox each month with questions that require you to review the key information you learned during the seminar. Third, contact your professional association Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 240 and ask them to consider changing their approach to training in accordance with this book. The test effect supports a new commercial training platform called Qstream, which helps trainers send students periodic quizzes via mobile devices to reinforce learning by practicing recovery at intervals. Similarly, a budding platform called Osmosis uses mobile and web-based software to give students access to thousands of crowdsourced practice questions and explanations. Osmosis combines testing power, spaces, and social networks to facilitate what its developers call "student-directed social learning." Qstream (qstream.com) and Osmosis (osmose-it.com) propose interesting opportunities to redesign professional development for professionals. Many other companies are developing similar programs. Kathy Maixner, Business Coach The Maixner Group is a Portland, Oregon-based consulting firm that helps companies identify growth strategies and improve sales tactics. Kathy Maixner prepares large and small fish. One of the big fish added $21 million to its annual revenue by partnering with Maixner. One of the smaller companies, Inner Gate Acu Puncture (Professor at the end of this chapter), learned how to establish a solid foundation for corporate governance in a clinical practice whose development was faster than its control systems. We are interested in Maixner because the coaching techniques she has developed over her career fit perfectly with the learning principles outlined in this book. In short, Maixner sees his role as helping the client dig through the symptoms of the problem to discover its root causes, then generate possible solutions and play out the implications of different strategies before adopting them.

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Make It Stick ê 241 Maixner told us, "If you give people the solution, they don't have to wonder how you got there. If they generate a solution, they're the ones traveling this way. Should they go left or right ?We are discussing options." Maixner's 11 years of experience working with clients in many different areas helps her see around the corner where the threats lie. It often uses role-playing to simulate problems, have customers generate solutions, test them, get feedback and practice what works. In other words, it creates difficulties that make learning stronger and more accurately reflect what the customer will encounter on the market.

Farmers Insurance Corporate sales training can be complicated. Typically, it's about company culture, beliefs and behaviors, and learning how to promote and protect your brand. It is also technical, getting to know the functions and benefits of the products. And it's partly strategic, learning about your target market and how to generate leads and sales. At Farmers Insurance, whose primary sales force is a cadre of approximately fourteen thousand independent exclusive agents, the training also prepares company representatives to become successful entrepreneurs by building and managing their own agency. Farmers sells about $20 billion a year in property and casualty insurance and investment products such as annuities and mutual funds. Describing the full extent of their training could fill volumes, but we will focus on how farmers bring new agents on board, training them in four areas of sales, marketing systems, business planning and brand advocacy. Training new agents in the company is a perfect example of the interweaving of science and practice at various Browns, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 242 but related topics so that each one adds meaning to the other, expanding and deepening the competence. The company recruits over two thousand new agents annually. Many are leaving traditional jobs elsewhere, lured by the rewards of running their own business and the opportunity to represent an established product line. Newly appointed agents arrive at one of the two training campuses to participate in an intensive, week-long training program, the level of which increases. At the beginning, participants are given a stack of magazines, scissors and markers to illustrate on a poster what successful Farmer agents will look like to them personally in five years. For some, the poster represents beautiful houses and cars. For others, children are sent to college and aging parents are cared for. The point is simple: If your definition of success requires e.g. $250,000 in annual revenue and 2,500 policies in force, we can help you work backwards to establish metrics for where you should be in four years, three years or even three months. The image on the poster shows where you're going, the metrics are your road map, and the skills you've learned in the coming days and months are the tools to get you on your journey. From now on, the week is not so much top-down teaching - there are no PowerPoint lectures per se - but bottom-up learning, such as "What knowledge and skills do I need to succeed?" Learning progresses through a series of exercises that go through the main themes of sales, marketing systems, business planning and value advocacy for the company and its brands - returning to each one several times, requiring participants to remember what they have learned before and apply it in a new, expanded context.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make it stick ê 243 For example, when participants first show up, they are assigned to a red, blue, or green group. The red group is ordered to meet the people in the room. The blue group is tasked with finding out three things about someone in the room. The green group is asked to ask another class member about his family, past employment, favorite forms of recreation, and what he enjoys most. When the class reconvenes, they share what they have learned about the others, and it soon becomes clear that the green group, which was structured to talk to others, learned much more than their peers. When we talk about sales later this week, the question arises, what is an effective way to meet a potential customer? One can recall the first exercise that proved so fruitful: the question of family, occupation, recreation and pleasure. This icebreaker now becomes a practical tool for meeting a potential customer and is given the acronym: FORE. During the week, the four main training topics are repeatedly addressed, attention is indicated, and exercises move on to related questions. In one session, participants brainstorm what types of marketing and development strategies can generate the lead flow they need to reach their sales goals. An effective sales and marketing system has a structure called 5-4-3-2-1. Five new business marketing initiatives each month, four cross-marketing and four retention programs, three scheduled appointments each day, two retained leads (prospects often need to change dates), averaged two policies sold per new customer. At twenty-two business days a month, that's about five hundred new policies a year, or twenty-five hundred over the agent's five-year horizon. Practice is the central learning strategy. For example, they practice how to respond to sales leads. In an attempt to sell Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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The company's Make It Stick ê 244 products are how they learn to sell, but also how they learn about the products they sell—not sitting in front of PowerPoint slides and staring at long lists of product features. You will be an agent, I will be a client. Then we switch. Among those exercises are others that help new agents learn about the company's history, its importance and the value of its products in people's lives, such as through stories of how it helped people recover from disasters like Hurricane Katrina. Given the emphasis on marketing and the limited resources that new agents must invest, how does an agent determine which strategies will be profitable? This begs the question: What reasonable return can you expect from a direct mail campaign? Agents think about it and guess. Usually one or more agents have direct marketing experience and offer a sober answer: The return is closer to 1 percent than the 50 percent many predicted. When a prospect arrives, how will you discover their needs, what products can satisfy them? They go back to the handy acronym FORE. Now the habit of asking about family, business, recreation and pleasure becomes something even more powerful than a tool to get to know each other.

It provides an opening to the four most important spheres of a potential customer's life where insurance and financial products can help that person protect their assets and achieve their financial goals. With each transition from one topic back to another, understanding deepens and new skills take shape. Through generation, staggered practice and interweaving of core curriculum, always with the five-year vision and roadmap in mind, new agents learn what to do and how to grow as part of the Farmers Insurance family.

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Make It Stick ê 245 Jiffy Lube If you don't expect training innovation to come to your local body shop, Jiffy Lube might surprise you. Aptly named Jiffy Lube University, an integrated suite of educational courses helps the company's franchisees win customers, reduce employee turnover, expand service offerings and increase sales. Jiffy Lube is a network of over two thousand service centers in the United States and Canada that offer oil changes, tire changes and other automotive services. Although the company is a subsidiary of Shell Oil Company, each of the outlets is owned and operated by an independent franchisee who employs staff to serve customers. The quick oil change industry, like most others, has had to adapt to market changes and technological advances. Synthetic lubricants have made oil changes less frequent, and as cars have become more complex, garage workers need a higher level of education to understand diagnostic codes and provide appropriate services. No employee may work on a customer's car until they have obtained a certificate of competency. To this end, they begin studying at Jiffy Lube University, an online learning platform. Certification begins with interactive e-learning, with frequent quizzes and feedback to learn what the job entails and how to do it. When employees score 80 percent or better on the exam, they can begin on-the-job training and practice new skills by following a written guide that breaks down each service activity into substeps. There can be as many as thirty steps, and they are performed as part of a team, often involving a call and response (eg between a technician working on top of the engine and another below it). The supervisor trains and evaluates the employee or Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 246 of her on mance every step of the way. Once the technician has demonstrated proficiency, the certification is recorded in his or her permanent file, signed by the supervisor. Technicians must be recertified every two years to maintain their snus proficiency and adapt to operational and technical changes. Similarly, senior positions related to advanced services, such as brake repair or running engine diagnostics, are trained. E-learning and on-the-job training are active learning strategies that involve various forms of quizzes, feedback and practice staggered and varied. All progress is displayed by the computer on a virtual "dashboard" which provides an individualized learning plan so the employee can track their progress, focus on skills to improve, monitor their progress against the company's implementation plan. Jiffy Lube employees are typically between the ages of eight and twenty-five and are starting their first job. A technician who is certified in one position begins training in another until he or she has trained in all positions in the store, including management. Ken Barber, head of learning and development at Jiffy Lube International, says training must be engaging to keep employees engaged. At the time we spoke, Barber was putting the finishing touches on a computer simulation game for business managers called A Day in the Life of a Store Manager. The service center manager is faced with various challenges and has to choose between a number of possible strategies to solve them. The leader's choice determines the course of the game, provides feedback and opportunities to strive for better results, sharpens the ability to make decisions. In the six years since its launch, Jiffy Lube University has received numerous accolades from educators and has been accredited by the American Council on Education.

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Make It Stick ê 247 Workers who complete training in all occupational certifications can enroll in a post-secondary institution with seven hours of college credit. Since the start of the program, staff turnover has decreased and customer satisfaction has increased. "For most employees at a Jiffy Lube franchisee, this is their entry into the workforce, and the training program helps them continue to grow and expand their knowledge," says Barber. "It helps them find their way to success." 12 Andersen Windows and Doors At Andersen Windows and Doors, a culture of continuous improvement turns the learning process on its head: production employees teach managers how to increase factory efficiency.

This story differs slightly from the others in this chapter in two respects. It is partly about creating a learning culture in the workplace, and partly about empowering employees to use what they learn to change jobs. By encouraging employees to identify problems at work and suggest improvements, the company supports one of the most powerful learning techniques we've talked about, which is struggling to solve a problem. A good place to focus is a division of the company called Renewal by Andersen, which produces replacement windows of all types and sizes: double-glazed windows, windows, sliding doors, panoramic and specialty in non-traditional shapes. At the Renewal by Andersen facility in Cottage Grove, Minnesota, their dual production line employs 36 people in an eight-hour shift divided into three workstations, one for frame production, one for frame production and one for final assembly. Each work cell has four workstations and is led by a team leader responsible for Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 248 safety, quality, price and delivery in this cell. Employees change jobs every two hours to minimize repetitive stress injuries and extend cross-training. Like the interweaving of practices of two or more different but related subjects, frequent job changes build an understanding of the integrated process for which their unit is responsible and equip employees to respond more broadly to unexpected events as they arise. It probably won't surprise you to know that every job is done according to written standards that describe each step and how it should be done. A written standard is essential for product uniformity and quality. Without it, says factory manager Rick Wynveen, four different people would do the work four different ways and produce four different versions of the product. When a new employee comes on board, they are trained following an instructional sequence of exercises and feedback that Wynveen calls "tell - show - do - review". The new employee is paired with the experienced employee, practice takes place in the workplace, and feedback brings learning and action according to the written standard. How do employees train managers? When a worker has an idea to improve productivity and management supports it, such as changing the way parts are delivered to the workstation to make life easier for the worker and speed up assembly, the worker who suggested it takes time off from production to help implement the new standard. "Everyone's ideas are valuable," Wynveen told us, "whether you're an engineer, a maintenance technician, or a production worker." 13 Similarly, when one of the production line teams is not meeting its goals, employees are asked to identify the problem and redesign the production process to solve it. The instructional role of workers is most dramatically illustrated in what Wynveen calls a Kaizen event. Kaizen to Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 249 Japanese term for improvement. It is key to Toyota Motor Company's success and has been adopted by many other companies to help create a culture of continuous improvement. When Wynveen wanted to significantly increase the productivity of its factory's double-hung window line, it recruited a design team to participate in a Kaizen event. The team consisted of an engineer, maintenance technician, line manager and five production employees. They were given ambitious targets to reduce the need for line space by 40 percent and double production.

(Amplifying goals are those that cannot be achieved through incremental improvements, but require a major restructuring of methods.) The team met in a boardroom eight hours a day for a week, effectively learning each other's elements, capabilities, and limitations in the manufacturing process, where you ask each other how you can reduce and improve it. The following week they returned to Wynveen and said, "Here's what we think we can do." Wynveen presented his plan to each of the twelve workstations on the line and asked a simple question: What changes are needed to make this plan work? The production staff and their crew leaders got together and redesigned the components to fit the new plan. The line was dismantled and rebuilt in two halves over two weekends, relaunched and fine-tuned over the following months, generating another two hundred improvements suggested by the production staff: learning test process, feedback and proofreading. Result? After five months, the factory met Wynveen's ambitious goals and cut costs in half. During the conversion and test run, the production teams never missed a delivery and never had quality issues. The Engagement Principle - Actively seeks ideas from employees at all levels by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 250 plants - is central to the company's culture of continuous improvement. "Engagement is a leadership style based on trust and a willingness to talk," says Wynveen. The production staff learned to fine-tune the design as they worked, and the company provided the opportunity to listen to suggestions and participate in their implementation. A learning culture puts the responsibility for learning on the employees and enables them to change the system.

Problems become information, not errors. And learning through problem solving (generation) and teaching others (development) becomes the engine for continuous improvement of individuals' work and the production line they create. Acupuncture's Inner Gate There are times when proper learning and teaching can shape the trajectory of your entire life. Consider Erik Isaacman, a man in his thirties, father of two, and passionate about traditional Chinese medicine: acupuncture, massage and herbal medicine. We close this chapter with a story about a turning point in Erik's fledgling practice, Inner Gate Acu Puncture in Portland, Oregon. This is the story of a clinic that succeeded in its therapeutic mission but struggled with business problems. Erik and his business partner, Oliver Leonetti, opened Inner Gate in 2005 after earning a degree in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Through networking and creative marketing, they began to build a stream of customers. Portland is fertile ground for alternative therapies. As the business grew, so did expenses: they rented more space, hired an assistant to arrange appointments and manage the office, brought on a third clinician and hired a back-office assistant. "We were Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID =3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 251 grows 35 to 50 percent every year,” Erik recalled during our conversation. "The development covered many shortcomings: We had no cost management systems. We had no clear goals or a management hierarchy. It quickly became clear that we had no idea how to run a business.' 14 One of Erika's patients is Oregon business coach Kathy Maixner. Maixner offered to help. "Uncontrolled growth is scary," she told us. "You jump forward and then you fly." She asked many questions that quickly turned Erik and Oliver's minds to critical vulnerabilities in their systems. The three then set up a schedule of frequent coaching sessions, between which Erik and Oliver generated the missing infrastructure: user manuals, job descriptions, financial goals, metrics to measure their clinicians' performance. . Every business serves two masters, its client and its bottom line. “Our clinicians need to understand more than just how to practice traditional Chinese medicine,” Erik said, reflecting on his and Oliver's learning curve. “They need to understand how to turn a patient visit into a relationship and how to help the patient understand their coverage.

Our customers' satisfaction is our highest priority. But we also have to pay the bills'. In his coaching sessions, Maixner used generation, reflection, elaboration and repetition by asking questions that revealed gaps in thinking or encouraged partners to better understand the behaviors and tools they needed to be effective leaders who delegated and empowered their employees. They developed a system to track clinical metrics such as patient visits, patient attrition rates, and referral sources. They learned how to secure adequate payouts from insurance companies, with reimbursements as low as 30 cents on the dollar. They developed the uniform of Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 252 protocol or template for clinicians to use when visiting a new patient. They acted out conversations between themselves and the workers. The key to putting the clinic on a solid foundation was that Erik became an effective trainer and teacher for his colleagues.

"We don't let it be intuitive," he said. For example, a new protocol for clinicians to follow during a patient's first session helps explain what led the patient to what therapies might be helpful, how to describe those therapies in terms the patient can understand, how to discuss insurance fees and reimbursement options, and how to recommend a treatment plan. "If you are a clinician, we play roles: now you are the patient and I am the doctor. We ask questions, objections, we practice answering and getting to the right place for the patient and the clinic. Then we switch roles. We record the role play and listening to the differences: How did you react to the patient and how did I react." In other words, learning through simulation, generation, testing, feedback and practice. At the time of writing, Inner Gate is in its eighth year and supports four clinicians and two and a half administrative staff. The fifth clinic is fast approaching and the partners want to open another location. Dedicated to both science and teaching, Erik and Oliver have turned their passion into a solid venture and a top-rated acupuncture clinic in Portland.

Throughout this book we have talked about learning, not education. The responsibility for learning lies with the individual, while the responsibility for education (as well as training) lies with society's institutions. Education includes Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Make It Stick ê 253 world of difficult questions. Are we learning the right things?

When we children young enough? How to measure certain results? Are our youth mortgaging their futures to pay for college? These are urgent problems and we must deal with them. But when we do, the highly effective learning techniques described in this book can be applied wherever students, teachers, and educators are at work. They come for free, require no structural reforms, and the benefits they promise are both real and long-lasting.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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UWAGI SUGEROWANA LEKTURA AC ZNANE SPISY INDEKS Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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257 1. Learning is misunderstood 1. The term mental model was first coined to refer to complex conceptual representations, such as understanding how an electrical grid or a car engine works. We extend the usage here to include fine motor skills, referring to what are sometimes called motor schemas.

2. Data on students' learning strategies comes from a study conducted by J.D. Karpicke, A.C. Butler, & H.L. Roediger, Metacognitive learning strategies for students: Do students practice reproducing when they learn by themselves?, Memory 17 (2010), 471-479.

3. Peter Brown interview with Matt Brown, March 28, 2011, Hastings, MN. All Matt Brown quotes are from this interview.

4. This advice can be found online at http://caps.gmu.edu/educational apps/pamphlets/StudyStrategies.pdf, accessed November 1, 2013.

5. This advice can be found online at www.dartmouth.edu/~acskills/docs/study_actively.doc, accessed 1 November 2013. Notes Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes on pages 12-20 ê 258 6. Study council cited in St. Louis Post-Dispatch is distributed by Newspapers in Education and can be viewed online at "Testing 1, 2, 3! How to Study and Take Tests', p. 14, at http://nieonline.com/includes/hottopics/Testing%20Testing %20123.pdf, accessed 2 November 2013.

7. For research showing the futility of mere repetition in memorizing details of what a crown looks like or where a fire extinguisher is located in a building, see R.S. Nickerson & M.J.

Adams, Long-Term Memory of a Common Object, Cognitive Psychology 11 (1979), 287–307, and A. D. Castel, M. Vendetti, and K. J. Holyoak, Inattentional blindness and the location of fire extinguishers, Attention, Perception and Duration 74 (2012 ), 1391-1396.

8. Eksperimentet Tulving referer til er beskrevet i E. Tulving, Subjective organisation and repetition effects in multiple trial free recall learning, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 5 (1966), 193-197.

9. For an experiment on how rereading does not greatly benefit later memorization, see A. A. Callender & M. A. Mc-Daniel, The Limited Benefits of Rereading Educational Texts, Contemporary Educational Psychology 34 (2009), 30-41.

10. A study showing that students prefer repeated reading as a learning strategy is from Karpicke et al., Metacognitive Strategies. Data was also taken from J. McCabe, Metacognitive awareness of learning strategies in students, Memory & Cognition 39 (2010), 462-476.

11. The illusions of knowledge will be the theme throughout this book. A general reference is Thomas Gilovich, How We Know What Isn't So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life (New York: Free Press, 1991).

12. R. J. Sternberg, E. L. Grigorenko, and L. Zhang, Learning and thinking styles matter in teaching and assessment, Perspectives on Psychological Science 3 (2008), 486–506.

13. The Columbia Middle School Project is described in M. A. McDaniel, P. K. Agarwal, B. J. Huelser, KB McDermott, & H. L. Roediger (2011). Test-assisted learning in a middle school science classroom: effects of quiz frequency and placement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103, 399–414.

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Notes on pages 20–32 ê 259 14. The concept of testing as a learning tool is detailed in Chapter 2. A general reference for the material in this chapter (and other educational applications of cognitive psychology in education) is M. A. McDaniel & A. A. Callender , Cognition , memory and education, in: H. L. Roediger, Cognitive Psychology of Memory, Vol. 2 learning and memory:

Comprehensive Reference (Oxford: Elsevier, 2008), s.

819-844.

2. Find Out, Recover 1. Peter Brown interview with Michael Ebersold, December 31, 2011, Wabasha, MN. All of Ebersold's quotes are from this interview.

2. An early work on forgetting curves was published by Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885 in a book translated into English as On Memory in 1913. The latest version is H. Ebbinghaus, Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology (New York: Dover, 1964 ). Ebbinghaus is often seen as the "father" of the scientific study of memory.

3. Citater fra Aristoteles og Bacon er fra: H. L. Roediger & J. D. Karpicke, The power of testing memory: Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice, Perspectives on Psychological Science 1 (2006), 181–210.

4. Benedict Carey, “Forget What You Know About Good Study Habits,” New York Times, September 7, 2010. The study referenced in this article was conducted by H.L. Roediger and J.D. Karpicke, Test-Aided Learning: Taking Memory Tests improves longevity - punctuality, Psychological Science 17 (2006), 249-255.

5. A. I. Gates, Recitation as a factor in remembering, Archives of Psychology 6 (1917) and H. F. Spitzer, Studies in retention, Journal of Educational Psychology 30 (1939), 641–656. These two large studies involving elementary and middle school children were among the first to document that taking a test or reciting material appearing in didactic texts improves memory for that material.

6. One study involving repeated tests versus repeated studies was E. Tulving, The Effects of Presentation and Retention Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes to pages 33–35 ê 260 in Free Recall Learning, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6 (1967), 175–184. A study on reducing forgetfulness in testing was conducted by M. A. Wheeler and H. L.

Roediger, Differential effects of repeated testing: reconciling the results of Ballard (1913) and Bartlett (1932), Psychological Science 3 (1992), 240-245.

7. The positive effects of generation appear from L. L. Jacoby, On interpreting the effect of repeat: Solving a problem versus remembering a solution, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 17 (1978), 649-667. This laboratory experiment showed that generating targeted information need not be extremely difficult to generate to produce better retention compared to viewing to-be-learned information.

8. Dwa artykuły opisujące badania w Columbia Middle School til H. L. Roediger, P. K. Agarwal, M. A. McDaniel og K. Mc-Dermott, Test- Enhanced Learning in the Classroom: Long-term Improvements from Quizing, Journal of Experimental Psyc hology : 17 2011), 382–395 i MA McDaniel, P.K.

Agarwal, B. J. Huelser, KB McDermott og H. L. Roediger, Test-Assisted Learning in a Middle School Science Classroom:

Effects of quiz frequency and location, Journal of Educational Psychology 103 (2011), 399-414. These companion articles were the first to report well-controlled experiments on the benefits of quizzes for middle school students at the social and science grade level exam. The results showed that the quizzes resulted in a significant improvement compared to no quizzes or direct revision of the target concepts in the unit tests and in the cumulative semester and end-of-term tests. Additionally, in some cases a single well-prepared test resulted in exam returns that were as robust as multiple repeated quizzes. For an interesting perspective on this project by one of the leading researchers, the first teacher, and the first principal involved, see P. K. Agarwal, P. M. Bain, & R. W. Chamberlain, The Value of Applied Research: Search Practice Improves Learning in the Classroom and Recommendations from teacher, principal and scientist. Review of Educational Psychology 24 (2012), 437–448.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Sidenotes 37–40 ê 261 9. Peter Brown interview with Roger Chamberlain, October 27, 2011, Columbia Middle School, Illinois. All of Chamberlain's quotes are from this interview.

10. Peter Brown interview with Andrew Sobel, December 22, 2011, St. Louis, Missouri. All Sobel quotes are from this interview.

11. The experiments described here are by H. L. Roediger and J. D. Karpicke, Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests to Improve Long-Term Retention, Psychological Science 17 (2006), 249-255. Experiments showing that recall of studied prose passages is better at 2-day and 1-week retention than passage restudy. For an earlier study to the same effect using word lists, see C.P.

Thompson, SK Wenger, and CA Bartling, How recall facilitates later recall: A reappraisal. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 4 (1978), 210-221. This experiment showed that the bulk test was better than the search exercise in the immediate test but not in the delayed test.

12. There are many studies on the effect of feedback. One of them is A. C. Butler and H. L. Roediger. Feedback reinforces the positive effects and reduces the negative effects of multiple-choice tests.

Memory & Cognition 36 (2008), 604–616. Experiments show that feedback reinforces the effect of the test itself, and feedback can be more beneficial when it is slightly delayed. The authors also showed that this feedback reinforces the positive effects and reduces the negative effects of multiple-choice testing. For fine motor skills, the classic reference is A. W. Salmoni, R. A. Schmidt, and C. B. Walter, Performance Knowledge and Motor Learning: Review and Critical Reassessment. Psychological Bulletin 95 (1984), 355-386. The authors proposed a guiding hypothesis for the influence of feedback on motor learning:

Frequent immediate feedback can be detrimental to long-term learning—even if it helps immediate results—because it provides support during practice that is no longer present in the delayed test.

13. Badanie testowe z otwartą księgą: P.K. Agarwal, J.D. Karpicke, S.H.K. Kang, H.L. Roediger, & K.B. McDermott, Examining Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes on pages 41–42 ê 262 the effect of open- and closed-book tests, Applied Cognitive Psychology 22 (2008), 861–876.

14. Studies comparing test types include S. H. Kang, K. B. Mc-Dermott, H. L. Roediger, Test format and corrective feedback alter the effect of testing on long-term retention. Europe an Journal of Cognitive Psychology 19 (2007), 528-558 and M. A. McDaniel, J. L. Anderson, M. H. Derbish, and N. Morrisette, Testing the testing effect in the classroom. Europe an Journal of Cognitive Psychology 19 (2007), 494-513. These parallel experiments, one in a laboratory and the other in a university course, showed that the short-answer quiz with feedback performed better on tests than the recognition quiz with feedback. The implication is that the test effect is stronger when the search requires more effort, as is typically the case with short-answer questions than with multiple-choice questions. However, some studies have shown that multiple-choice tests, especially when taken repeatedly, can have as positive effects in the classroom as short-answer tests; see K. B. McDermott, P. K. Agarwal, L. D'Antonio, H. L. Roediger, and M. A. McDaniel, Both multiple-choice and short-answer quizzes improve subsequent achievement exams in middle school and high school classrooms, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Ap - layered (in print).

15. These studies have examined students' use of tests as a learning strategy: J. D. Karpicke, A. C. Butler, and H. L. Roediger, III, Metacognitive strategies in student learning: Do students practice information seeking when they study independently?, Memory 17 (2009) ) . This research describes studies of college students using recall practice as a learning technique.

16. Taking a test—even if you don't remember information about it correctly—enhances learning from the new learning episode. See K. M. Arnold and K. B. McDermott, Test-Reinforced Learning:

Distinguishing between direct and indirect test effects, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 39 (2013), 940–945.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes to Pages 43–48 ê 263 17. This is a study of frequent low-stakes testing: F. C. Leeming, Exam-day routine improves performance in psychology classes, Teaching of Psychology 29 (2002), 210–212. The author found that in classrooms where he gave students a short test at the beginning of each class, students participated more often and felt they had studied and learned more than students in classes with only four tests per class. term. The final test for each section (with or without a quiz per day) confirmed the students' impressions. Another interesting classroom study is by K. B. Lyle and N.

A. Crawford, Finding relevant material at the end of lectures improves performance on statistics exams, Teaching of Psychology 38 (2011), 94–97. Two reviews of research on recall practice and testing appear in: H. L. Roediger & J. D. Karpicke, The Power of Memory Testing: Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice, Perspectives on Psychological Science 1 (2006), 181–210.

This article provides a comprehensive overview of laboratory and classroom research across nearly a century of research that demonstrates that testing can be a powerful educational tool. A recent review points to the many benefits of frequent testing beyond the direct benefits of seeking practice: H. L.

Roediger, M. A. Smith, and A. L. Putnam, Ten Benefits of Testing and its Application to Educational Practice, in J. Mestre and B. H. Ross (eds.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation (San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press, 2012). This chapter summarizes the many potential benefits of using testing as a learning technique.

3. Mix up your practice 1. For a report on the bean bag study, see R. Kerr and B. Booth, Specific and Varied Motor Skills Practice, Perceptual and Motor Skills 46 (1978), 395-401.

2. Many well-controlled experiments conducted with different materials and training tasks provide solid evidence that massed practice (doing the same thing over and over again, a strategy often preferred by students) is inferior to spacing, and Brown, Peter C., et. eel. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes on pages 48–53 ê 264 alternating exercise for learning and memory. For an overview of the literature on the memory location effect, see: N. J. Cepeda, H. Pashler, E. Vul, J. T. Wixted, & D. Rohrer, Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis, Psychological Bulletin 132 (2006), 354 -380.

3. The surgical examination is C-A. E. Moulton, A. Dubrowski, H. Mac-Rae, B. Graham, E. Grober, and R. Reznick, Teaching Surgical Skills: What Kind of Practice Makes Perfect?, Annals of Surgery 244 (2006), 400-409 I In this study, surgical residents were randomly assigned to either a normal full-day intensive surgical lesson or an experimental lesson that included four short teaching periods over several weeks. The results, which showed better memory and application of surgical techniques after being taught at intervals, led the medical school to reconsider the standard instructional procedure of cramming instructions for a particular surgical technique into one intensive session.

4. A study showing the benefits of interleaving in mathematics problems is D. Rohrer and K. Taylor, The shuffling of mathematics problems Improvement Learning, Instructional Science 35 (2007), 481-498. Standard practice in mathematics teaching - books are about grouping practice problems by task type. This laboratory experiment showed that this standard practice performed worse on the final test, where new problems from each problem type were given, compared to the practice procedure that mixed practice problems from different problem types (interleaved).

5. A study linking differences in training strategies to differences in motor memory consolidation was conducted by S.S. Kantak, K.

J. Sullivan, B. E. Fisher, B. J. Knowlton, and C. J. Winstein, The neural substrates of motor memory consolidation depend on practice structure, Nature Neuroscience 13 (2010), 923–925.

6. An anagram study was conducted by M. K. Goode, L. Geraci, and H. L. Roediger, Superiority of variable to repeat practice in transfer on anagram solution, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 15 (2008), 662-666. These researchers gave subjects practice solving anagrams for a set of words: One group was given the same anagram for a specific target word on each practice Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Sample notes on pages 54–60 ê 265 (mass practice), while another group received a different anagram for the specific target word in each practice test (various practice). Surprisingly, the varied practice produced better results in the final trial, where the anagrams were the same as those practiced in the other group, which practiced the anagram tested more times.

7. A study on learning artists' styles was conducted by N. Kornell and R. A. Bjork, Learning Concepts and Categories: Is Spacing the 'Enemy of Induction'?, Psychological Science 19 (2008), 585–592. students tried to learn the painting style of many relatively unknown artists.

Students learned styles better when artists' images were mixed than when each artist's images were combined while studying. However, contrary to the objective learning outcomes, most students insisted that they learn better through massive presentations. Another illuminating study is S. H. K. Kang and H. Pashler, Learning Painting Styles: Spacing Is Beneficial as It Promotes Discriminatory Contrast, Applied Cognitive Psychology 26 (2012), 97–103, which showed that mixing picture examples helped highlight differences between styles, painters (which we call discriminative contrast).

8. The discovery that improving discrimination between exemplars contributes to conceptual learning comes from L.L. Jacoby, C.N.

Wahlheim and J.H. Coane, Test-assisted learning of natural concepts: effects on recognition memory, classification, and metacognition, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 36 (2010), 1441–1442.

9. Peter Brown interview with Doulas Larsen, 23 December 2011, St. Louis, Mo. All Larsen's quotes are from this interview.

10. For Doug Larsen's work, see D. P. Larsen, A. C. Butler, & H. L. Roediger, Repeated testing improves long-term retention over repeated testing: a randomized controlled trial. Medical Education 43 (2009), 1174–1181; D. P. Larsen, A. C. Butler, A. L. Lawson, and H. L. Roediger, The importance of patient perspective: test-assisted learning with standardized patients and written tests improves the clinical application of knowledge, Advances in Health Science Education 18 (2012), 1–17; and Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Uwagi do stron 62–69 ê 266 D. P. Larsen, A. C. Butler, & H. L. Roediger, Comparative Effects of test- Enhanced Learning and self-expact on long-term retencja, Medical Education 47, 7 (2013), 674-682.

11. Peter Brown interview with Vince Dooley, February 18, 2012, Athens, GA. All of Dooley's quotes are from this interview.

12. Psychologists interested in learning have long distinguished between the immediate need to learn and basic learning (as measured by latency with intervening reminders). As a simple example, someone might say that James Monroe was the fifth president of the United States. You would probably be able to answer correctly if you were asked about the fifth president for the rest of the day or week. It would be because I just heard it (thereby increasing the immediate power or what psychologists Robert and Elizabeth Bjork call the restorative power). But if someone asks you a year later about the fifth president, it will be a measure of strength of habit, or as Bjorks calls it, staying power. See R. A. Bjork and E. L. Bjork, The New Disuse Theory and the Old Stimulus Fluctuation Theory, in A. F.

Healy, S. M. Kosslyn og R. M. Shiffrin (red.), From learning to cognition: essays in honor of William K. Estes (Vol. 2, pp. 35-67) (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1992).

For en nylig diskussion, se N. C. Soderstrom og R. A. Bjork, Learning versus per for mance, i D. S. Dunn (red.), Oxford Bibliographys online: Psychology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013) doi 10. 1093/obo/ 9780199828340-0081.

4. Overcome Difficulties 1. All Mia Blundetto quotes are from phone conversations between Peter Brown in Austin, Texas, and Blundetto in Camp Fuji, Japan on February 9 and March 2, 2013.

2. The term "desirable learning disabilities" is taken from the article by R. A. Bjork & E. L. Bjork, The New Theory of Disuse and the Old Theory of Stimulus Fluctuation, in A. F. Healy, S. M.

Kosslyn og R. M. Shiffrin (red.), From Learning to Cognition: Essays in Honor of William K. Estes (Vol.

2, pp. 35–67) (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1992). The idea seems counterintuitive – how making things more difficult can lead to Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes on pages 73–78 ê 267 to learn better and remember longer? The rest of this chapter clears up this conundrum and explains why it seems to arise.

3. Psychologists distinguish three stages of the learning/remembering process: encoding (or assimilation of information); storage (persistent information over time); and retrieval (subsequent use of information). Whenever you managed to remember an event, all three stages were intact. Forgetting (or the emergence of false memories—recalling an erroneous "memory" of an event but believing it to be correct) can occur at any stage.

4. For a classic article on consolidation, see J. L. McGaugh, Memory—a Century of Consolidation, Science 287 (2000), 248–251. For a more recent and comprehensive review, see Y. Dudai, The neurobiology of consolidations, or How stable is the engram?, Annual Review of Psychology 55 (2004), 51-86. For evidence that sleep and dreaming help consolidate memory, see E.J. Wamsley, M. Tucker, J.D. Payne, J.A.

(Video) How to Write a Literature Review in 30 Minutes or Less

Benavides and R. Stickgold, Dreaming about a learning task is associated with enhanced sleep-dependent memory consolidation, Current Biology 20 (2010), 850-855.

5. Endel Tulving emphasized the key role of recall cues in memorization, stressing that memorization is always a product of both stored information (memory traces) and cues in the environment that may recall information. With stronger cues, even weaker cues become available for recall. See E. Tulving, Forgetting Dependent on Directions, American Scientist 62 (1974), 74–82.

6. Robert Bjork emphasized to some extent the role of forgetting the original event as contributing to the amount of learning from the second presentation of the same event. An example is the effect of event location on memory (space effect). For examples, see N. C. Soderstrom and R. A. Bjork, Learning versus per for mance, in D. S. Dunn (ed.), Oxford Bibliographies in Psychology (New York: Oxford University Press, in press).

7. The problem of old learning interfering with new learning is called negative transfer in psychology. For evidence of how forgetting old information can help you learn new Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Bemærkninger på side 79–82 ê 268 for information, se R. A. Bjork, On the Symbiosis of Remembering, Forgetting, and Learning, i A. S. Benjamin (red.), Successful Remembering and Successful Forgetting: A Festschrift in Honor of Robert A. Bjork (s. 1-22) (New York: Psychology Press , 2010).

8. The situation where information still exists in memory but cannot be actively recalled has been highlighted as a key problem in memory (Tulving, Cue dependent forgetting). Stored information is said to be accessible while restored information is accessible. The example of an old address we give in this chapter that a person cannot remember but can easily recognize from multiple options is an example of the power of retrieval cues to make memories accessible to conscious awareness. Recognition tests tend to provide stronger clues than recall tests.

9. The study of baseball players taking batting practice is described in K. G. Hall, D. A. Domingues, & R. Cavazos, Contextual interference effect with talented baseball players, Perceptual and Motor Skills 78 (1994), 835-841.

10. "Reload" is a term used by Björks to indicate the reconstruction of a concept or skill after some delay. A good, easily accessible source for these ideas is E. L. Bjork and R. A. Bjork, Making Things Hard Onself, but in Good Way: Creating Desirable Difficulties to Improve Learning, in M. A. Gernsbacher, R. W. Pew, L. M. Hough, & J. R. Pomerantz (eds. ), Psychology and the Real World: Essays Illustrating Fundamental Contributions to Society (pp. 56–64) (New York: Worth, 2009).

11. The concept of reconsolidation has several different uses in psychology and neurobiology. The primary meaning is to revive the original memory and then repair it again (as in the practice of retrieval). However, the original memory can be changed by reconsolidation if new information is introduced during the recovery of the original memory. Reconsolidation has been studied by both neuroscientists and cognitive psychologists.

Some entry points to this literature include D. Schiller, M.H.

Monfils, C.M. Ray, D.C. Johnson, J.E. LeDoux and E.A.

Phelps, Preventing Fear Relaps in Humans Using Reconsolidation Update Mechanisms, Nature 463 (2010), 49-53, Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes on pages 85–90 ê 269 and B. Finn and H. L. Roediger, Enhanced retention through reconsolidation: Negative emotional arousal after recall improves later memory, Psychological Science 22 (2011), 781–786.

12. For forskning i interleaving, se M. S. Birnbaum, N. Kornell, E. L. Bjork og R. A. Bjork, Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval, Memory & Cognition 41 (2013), 392-402.

13. Several studies have shown that while making text difficult to read by omitting letters or using unusual typography can slow down reading, readers remember more. M. A. McDaniel, G. O. Einstein, P. K. Dunay, and R. Cobb, Coding Difficulty and Memory: Towards a Unifying Theory, Journal of Memory and Language 25 (1986), 645–656 and C

Diemand-Yauman, D. Oppenheimer, & E. B. Vaughn, Fortune favors bold (and italics): Effects of disfluency on educational outcomes, Cognition 118 (2010), 111–115. A study in which contours either match or do not match is S. M. Mannes & W. Kintsch, Knowledge organization and text organization, Cognition and Instruction 4 (1987), 91-115.

14. Studies showing that generation can improve memory include L. L. Jacoby, On interpreting effect of repeat: Solving a problem versus remembering a solution, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 17 (1978), 649-667, and N. J.

Slamecka and P. Graf, The generation effect: Defining a phenomenon, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 4 (1978), 592-604. The act of generating before a learning episode has also recently been shown to improve performance; see L.E. Richland, N. Kornell, and L.S

Kao, the pretest effect: Do failed retrieval trials enhance learning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 15 (2009), 243-257.

15. The cited study on writing-to-learning is K. J. Gingerich, J. M. Bugg, S. R. Doe, C. A. Rowland, T. L. Richards, S. A. Tompkins, & M. A. McDaniel, Active Processing via write-to-learning assignments: Learning and retention benefits introductory, Teaching in psychology, (in press).

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes on pages 90–102 ê 270 16. B. F. Skinner had many influential and interesting ideas about learning in schools as well as other topics in American society. His important book Science and Human Behavior can be downloaded for free from the B. F. Skinner Foundation website. See also B.F. Skinner, Teaching machine, Science 128 (1958), 969-977. Errorless learning appears to be important in teaching people with memory impairment, but in most learning situations mistakes (as long as they are corrected with feedback) do not hurt and can even help learning. See e.g. B. J.

Huelser and J. Metcalfe, Making related errors helps learning, but learners don't know it, Memory & Cognition 40 (2012), 514–527.

17. A French study on school children solving anagrams appears in F. Autin and J. C. Croziet, Improving Working Memory Efficiency by Reframing metacognitive interpretation of task difficulty, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 141 (2012), 610-618. story about the Feast of Mistakes, cf. Lizzy Davis, "Paris Stages 'Festival of Errors' to Teach French Schoolchildren How to Think", Guardian, 21 July 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/Jul/21/france-paris - festival-of-errors, accessed 22 October 2013.

18. Peter Brown's telephone interview with Bonnie Blodgett, March 10, 2013, St. Paul, MN. All of Blodgett's quotes are from this interview.

19. Cytat z Bjork pochodzi od E. L. Bjork & R. A. Bjork, Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way:

Creating Desirable Difficulties to Enhance Learning, in M.A.

Gernsbacher, R. W. Pew, L. M. Hough og J. R. Pomerantz (red.), Psychology and the Real World: Essays Illustrating Fundamental Contributions to Society (s. 56-64) (New York: Worth, 2009).

5. Avoid illusions about knowledge 1. The field of metacognition - what we know about what we know, and how we evaluate our performance - is developing in psychology. A good general source of information on metacognition is John Dunlosky and Janet Metcalfe, Metacognition Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes on pp. 104–109 ê 271 (Los Angeles: Sage, 2009). Daniel Kahneman, Thinking Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux, 2011), also discusses the many illusions to which the mind falls prey. For an earlier discussion of multiple delusions, see Thomas Gilovich, How We Know What Isn't So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life (New York: Free Press, 1991). For a shorter review, see H.L. Roediger, III, & A.C.

Butler, Paradoxes of remembering and knowing, i N. Kapur, A. Pascual-Leone, & V. Ramachandran (red.), The Paradoxical Brain (s. 151-176) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

2. Peter Brown interview with David Garman, December 12, 2011, Minneapolis, Minnesota. All of Garman's quotes are from this interview.

3. The China Airlines incident is described in: National Transportation Safety Board, "Aircraft Accident report - China Airlines Boeing 747-SP N4522V, 300 Nautical Miles Northwest of San Francisco, California, February 19, 1985", March 29, 1986 and can be found at http://www.rvs.uni-bielefeld.de/publications/Incidents/DOCS/ComAndRep/ChinaAir/AAR8603.html, accessed 24 October 2013. Report of the National Transportation Safety Board on the investigation of the Carnahan accident reports: AS.

Lombardo, “Spatial Disorientation” from the Carnahan Crash,” Aviation International News, AINonline, July 2002, available at: http://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/aviation-international-news/2008-04 - 16 / spatial -desorientation -caused -carnahan -crash, accessed October 24, 2013. Report of the National Transportation Safety Board's investigation into the J.F. Kennedy Jr. crash was reported by: N. Sigelman, "NTSB Says Spatial Disorientation Caused Cape Air Crash ", Martha's Vineyard Times, mntimes.com, available at http://www.mvtimes.com/ntsb-says-spatial-disorientation-caused-cape-air-crash-960/, accessed 24 October 2013.

4. E. Morris, "The Anosognostic Dilemma: Something's Wrong, But You'll Never Know What It Is" (pkt. 5), New York Times, 24. juni 2010.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes on pages 111–115 ê 272 5. LL Jacoby, RA Bjork and CM Kelley, Illusions of understanding, competence and remembering, in: D. Druckman and RA Bjork (eds.), Learning, remembering, believing: Empowering the human pr . for mance (pp. 57-80) (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1994).

6. The Carol Harris/Helen Keller study is described in R. A. Sulin & D. J. Dooling, Intrusion of a thematic idea in maintenance of prose, Journal of Experimental Psychologist 103 (1974), 255-262. For an overview of memory illusions, see H. L. Roediger & K. B. McDermott, Distortions of memory, in FIM Craik & E. Tulving (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Memory (pp. 149-164) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) ).

7. Imaginal inflation has been shown both in studies of early life memory and in laboratory studies. Two of the original references for each type of research are M. Garry, C. G.

Manning, E. F. Loftus og S. J. Sherman, Inflation of the Imagination:

Imagining a childhood event increases certainty that it happened, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 3 (1996), 208-214 and L.M.

Goff og H.L. Roediger, Imagination Inflation for Action Events:

Repetitive imagery leads to illusory memories, Memory & Cognition 26 (1998), 20-33.

8. An experiment with leading questions is E. F. Loftus and J. C. Palmer, Reconstructing the destruction of a car: an example of the interaction between language and memory, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 13 (1974), 585-589.

9. An article on the memory dangers of hypnosis is P. A. Register & J. F. Kihlstrom, Hypnosis and interrogative suggestion, Personality and Individual Differences 9 (1988), 549-558. For a review of memory issues relevant to law, see H. L. Roediger and D. A. Gallo, Processes Affecting Memory Accuracy and Distortion: A Review, in M. L. Eisen, G. S. Goodman, and J. A. Quas (eds.), Memory and Suggestibility in the Forensic Interview (pp. 3–28) (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2002).

10. For Don Thomsons historie, se B. Bower, Gone but not Forgotten: Scientists Uncover Pervasive Unconscious Influences on Memory, Science News 138, 20 (1990), 312–314.

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Notes to pages 116–123 ê 273 11. The curse of knowledge, hindsight bias, and other topics are covered in Jacoby, Bjork, and Kelley, Illusions of Understanding, Competence, and Remembering, and many other places.

A relatively recent review of fluency effects can be found in D. M. Oppenheimer, The secret life of fluency, Trends in Cognitive Science 12 (2008), 237-241.

12. Social contagion of memory: H. L. Roediger, M. L. Meade, & E. Bergman, Social contagion of memory, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 8 (2001), 365-371 13. Two important reviews of the false consensus effect are in: L. Ross , The False Consensus Effect: An Egocentric Bias in the Processes of Social Perception and Attribution, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 13 (1977), 279-301 and G. Marks, N. Miller, Ten Years of Studying the False Consensus Effect: An empirical and theoretical review Psychological Bulletin 102 (1987), 72–90.

14. Flashbulb memory of 9/11: J. M. Talarico & D. C. Rubin, Confi dence, not consenity, charakteryzuje flash ashbulb memory, Psychological Science 14 (2003), 455-461, og W. Hirst, E. A.

Phelps, R.L. Buckner, A. Cue, D.E. Gabrieli & M.K. Johnson's long-term memory of the September 11 terrorist attack:

Flashbulb Memories, Event Memories, and Retention Factors, Journal of Experimental Psychology:

General 138 (2009), 161-176.

15. Eric Mazur's material is from his YouTube lecture "Confessions of a Converted Lecturer", available at www .youtube.com/watch?v=WwslBPj8GgI, accessed 23 October 2013.

16. The curse of knowing how to guess overheard melodies comes from L. Newton, Overconfidence in the communication of intent: Heard and unheard melodies (Ph.D. Diss., Stanford University, 1990).

17. The Dunning-Kruger effect comes from Justin Kruger and David Dunning, Unqualified and Unaware: How Difficulties in Recognizing One's Incompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Esteem, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999), 1121-1134. Many subsequent experimental studies and articles were based on it. See D. Dunning, Self-insight:

Roadblocks and Detours on the Road to Self-Knowledge (New York: Psychology Press, 2005).

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Notes to pages 123–131 ê 274 18. Stories of student-directed learning: Susan Dominus, "Play-dough? Bill? At Manhattan Free School, Anything Goes," New York Times, October 4, 2010, and Asha Anchan, "The DIY Approach to Education,” Minneapolis StarTribune, July 8, 2012.

19. Studies showing that students drop flashcards earlier than they should for long-term learning include N. Kornell and R. A.

Bjork, Optimizing Self-Regulating Study: The Benefits-and Costs-of Giving Up Flashcards, Memory 16 (2008), 125-136, and J. D. Karpicke, Metacognitive Control and Strategy Choice: Deciding to Practice Recall While Learning, Journal of Experimental Psychology : General 138 (2009), 469-486.

20. Eric Mazur published Peer Instruction: A User's Manual, about his approach to teaching. (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall, 1997). Additionally, he illustrates his approach with an engaging YouTube lecture, "Confessions of a Converted Lecturer," described in footnote 15. Again, this is http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WwslBPj8GgI, accessed on 23 .October, 2013.

21. Dunnings citat er fra E. Morris, "The Anosognostic Dilemma: Something's wrong, but you'll never know what it is" (pkt. 5), New York Times, 24. juni 2010.

22. Peter Brown interview med Catherine Johnson, 13. december 2011, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

23. Much of this chapter deals with how to regulate the learning process while avoiding various illusions and biases based on fluency, hindsight bias, and the like. An excellent article on self-regulated learning that may prove useful to anyone seeking more knowledge on these topics is R. A. Bjork, J. Dunlosky, and N. Kornell, Self-Regulated Learning: Beliefs, Techniques, and Illusions, Annual Review of Psychology 64 (2013), 417-444.

6. Go beyond learning styles 1. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was an English philosopher and statesman. The full quote reads: "Everything that rises to a great place leads up a winding staircase; and if there are factions, it is well to side with the man when he is in rebellion, and keep the balance when he be placed in. From Bacon's essay On a Wonderful Place.

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Notes on pages 133–148 ê 275 2. Peter Brown's interview with Bruce Hendry, 27 August 2012, St. Paul, MN. All of Hendry's quotes are from this interview.

3. Betsy Morris, Lisa Munoz og Patricia Neering, "Overcoming Dyslexia," Fortune, maj 2002, s. 54-70.

4. Annie Murphy Paul, "The upside of dyslexia," New York Times, February 4, 2012. Geiger and Lettvin's work is described in G. Geiger & J. Y. Lettvin, Developmental dyslexia:

A different perceptual strategy and how to learn a new reading strategy, Saggi: Child Development and Disabilities 26 (2000), 73–89.

5. The study is cited in: F. Coffield, D. Moseley, E. Hall, Learning styles and pedagogy in learning beyond the age of 16, a systematic and critical review, 2004, Learning and Skills Research Centre, London; the student's quote ("there is no use reading a book") is from the same source, p. 137. The quote "contradictory assertion affair" is from Michael Reynolds, Learning Styles: A Critique, Management Learning, June 1997, Vol. 28 no. 2, p. 116.

6. Material on learning styles is taken mainly from H. Pashler, M. A. McDaniel, D. Rohrer, and R. A. Bjork, Learning styles: A Critical Review of Concepts and Effects, Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9 (2009), 105–119. This article reviews the published evidence on whether learning improves when the teaching method is matched to students' learning styles, compared to when the teaching method is not matched. Two important findings were that (1) there are very few studies that have taken the gold standard of conducting controlled experiments, and (2) the few published experiments have consistently shown that matching instruction to a learning style did not improve learning. One of the main findings is that more experimental research is needed on this issue, but currently there is little evidence for commonly postulated learning styles.

7. An excellent text on classical views of intelligence is Earl Hunt, Human Intelligence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

8. Howard Gardner's theory is described, among other things, in his book Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons (New York: Basic Books, 2006).

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Footnotes on pages 148–150 ê 276 9. The material on the work of Robert Sternberg, Elena Grigorenko and their associates comes from several sources. A nice exposition of this theory can be found in R. J. Sternberg, Grigorenko, E. L., & Zhang, L., Learning and Thinking Styles in Teaching and Assessment, Perspectives on Psychological Science (2008) 486–506. In another interesting study by Sternberg, Grigorenko and colleagues identified college students who showed significantly higher analytical, creative, or practical skills (relative to the other two abilities) and assigned them to different classes that focused on analytical, creative, and teaching. or practical teaching. Students who received instruction that matched their strongest abilities did better on some measures of classroom performance than students who received unmatched instruction; see RJ Sternberg, E.L.

Grigorenko, M. Ferrari og P. Clinkenbeard, Triarchic analysis of aptitude-treatment interaction, Europe an Journal of Psychological Assessment 15 (1999), 1-11.

10. A study of Brazilian children was carried out by T. N. Carraher, D. W. Carraher and A. D. Schliemann, Mathematics in the streets and in the school, British Journal of Developmental Psychology 3 (1985), 21-29. This fascinating study focused on five children from very poor backgrounds who worked on street corners or markets in Brazil. Per for mance was compared for similar multiplication problems presented in different contexts: a natural context in which the child was an expert (e.g., selling bananas) or formal math tasks with no context. Children solved nearly 100 percent of the problems presented in a natural context, less so in other contexts, and only about a third when presented as a formal problem. The key point is that children used specific grouping strategies to solve problems related to natural context, but then switched to strategies taught at school (not yet well learned) when presented with formal problems. The mathematical strategies that the children developed were not seen in the learning-oriented test.

11. A study of racial inhibitors is S. J. Ceci and J. K. Liker, A Day at the Races: A Study of IQ, Knowledge, and Cognition Complex by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes to pages 152–155 ê 277, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 115 (1986), 255–266. This study involved luge racing fans, some of whom were classified as experts and some as less experts. The expert group and the less expert group were equally matched for IQ, but the expert group did significantly better at predicting the outcomes of real races and races invented by the experimenters. The experts' success was based on their use of an extremely complex weighing system and a combination of a variety of information related to horses and racing conditions.

12. Dynamisk test: Robert Sternberg og Elena Grigorenko diskuterer dette koncept i Dynamic Testing: The Nature and Measurement of Learning Potential (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

13. The basic work on structure was initiated by M. A. Gernsbacher, K. R. Varner, and M. E. Faust, Investigating differences in general understanding of skills, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 16 (1990), 430-445. This article presents some of the elegant experimental work that has contributed to the development of structure-building theory—the idea that people with good comprehension are able to construct a coherent, ordered representation of a narrative from multiple sources (either reading, listening to or see in pictures), while those less able to understand tend to construct multiple, somewhat fragmentary representations of the narrative.

These studies further suggested that poor structurers, but not good structurers, have difficulty inhibiting irrelevant information, possibly contributing to their fractional (inefficient) representation. Another relevant article is A. A. Callender and M. A. McDaniel, The benefits of embedded question adjuncts for low and high structure builders, Journal of Educational Psychology 99 (2007), 339-348. They showed that low structure builders achieve less learning from standard school materials (textbook chapters) than high level structure builders. However, building questions into the chapters to focus on important concepts (and requiring them to answer the questions) increased the knowledge level of the low-level structurers, which benefited the high-level structurers.

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Notes on pages 157–158 ê 278 14. The discussion of the concept of learning here is based on two studies: T. Pachur and H. Olsson, The type of task learning affects performance and choice of strategy in decision making, Cognitive Psychology 65 (2012 ), 207-240. A typical approach to the study of conceptual learning in the laboratory is to provide one example at a time, with students trying to figure out the likely classification of that example (eg, given a case from a specific set of symptoms, what is the likely disease?). This experiment modified this procedure by presenting two examples simultaneously (e.g., two cases) and requiring students to choose which would most likely reflect a particular classification. This comparative approach resulted in less focus on remembering examples and better extraction of the underlying rule by which the examples were classified.

A similar theme to the above, except that the focus is on transfer in solving problems, appears in M. L. Gick & K. J.

Holyoak, Schema induction and analogical transfer, Cognitive Psychology 15 (1983), 1-38. Students either studied an example of a solution to a specific problem, or they had to compare two different types of problems to identify the common elements in their solutions. Students who compared two problems were more likely to extract a general solution pattern and transfer that pattern to successfully solve the new problems than students who studied only one problem.

15. A reference for rule learning and learning by example is M. A. McDaniel, M. J. Cahill, M. Robbins, & C. Wiener, Individual Differences in Learning and Transfer: Stable Pattern Learning Tendencies vs. Abstract Rules, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 143 (2014). Using laboratory tasks, this ground-breaking study revealed that some people tend to learn concepts by focusing on remembering specific examples and example-related responses used to illustrate a concept (called model learners), while other learners concentrate on the basic abstraction reflected in the individual examples used to illustrate the concept (called abstractions). Moreover, a particular person's propensity to learn concepts held up in a completely different laboratory concept - Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes on learning tasks on pages 163–168 ê 279, suggesting that individuals may have a fairly stable disposition toward exemplar learning compared to abstraction across a range of conceptual learning tasks. Interestingly, the original result was that abstractionists scored, on average, higher grades in an introductory college chemistry course than model students.

7. Boost Your Skills 1. A good introduction to Walter Mischel's classic study of the delay of gratification in children is W. Mischel, Y. Shoda, and M. L. Rodriguez, Delay of gratification in children, Science 244 (1989), 933-938 with an accessible introduction for non-psychologists, see Jonah Lehrer, "Don't! The Secret of Self-Control," New Yorker, May 18, 2009, pp. 26-32. For the 2011 update, see I.

Mischel and O. Ayduk, Willpower in the Cognitive-Affective Processing System: The Dynamics of Gratification Delay, in: K.D.

Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (eds.), Self-regulation handbook:

Research, Theory, and Applications (2. udgave, s. 83-105) (New York: Guilford, 2011).

2. Carson's accounts are reproduced on the website maintained by historian Bob Graham, whose predecessors were among the original American settlers of California, www.longcamp.com/kit_bio.html, accessed 30 October 2013, and is derived from material originally published in Washington, D.C. Union in the summer of 1847 and reprinted in the Connecticut Courant Supplement, July 3, 1847. Hampton Sides, Blood and Thunder (New York: Anchor Books, 2006), 125–126, deals with Fremont Carson's guidance of this journey.

3. Brain plasticity research: J. T. Bruer, Neural connections: Some you use, some you lose, Phi Delta Kappan 81, 4 (1999), 264-277. Goldman-Rakic's quote comes from an article by Bruer in which she cites a submission to the State Board of Education. Additional research on brain plasticity with an emphasis on brain injury healing can be found in D. G. Stein & S. W. Hoffman, Concepts of CNS plasticity in the context of brain injury and repair, Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 18 (2003), 317-341.

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Noter på side 168-176 ê 280 4. H. T. Chugani, M. E. Phelps og J. C. Mazziotta, Positron Emission Tomography Study of the Development of Human Brain Function, Annals of Neurology 22 (1987), 487-497.

5. J. Cromby, T. Newton og S. J. Williams, Neuroscience and Subjectivity, Subjectivity 4 (2011), 215-226.

6. An accessible introduction to this work is Sandra Blakeslee, "New Tools to Help Patients Recover Damaged Senses," New York Times, 23 Nov. 2004.

7. P. Bach-y-Rita, Tactile studies of sensory substitution, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1013 (2004), 83-91.

8. For work on myelination, see R. D. Fields, White Matters, Scientific American 298 (2008), 42-49, and R. D. Fields, Myelination: An overlooked mechanism of synaptic plasticity?, Neuroscientist 11 (December 2005), pp. 528- 531. A more popular presentation can be found in Daniel Coyle, The Talent Code (New York: Bantam, 2009).

9. Nogle kilder om neurogenese: P. S. Eriksson, E. Perfilieva, T. Björk-Eriksson, A. M. Alborn, C. Nordborg, D. A. Peterson og F. H. Gage, Neurogenesis in the adult human hippo-campus, Nature Medicine 4 (1998) , 1313-1317; P. Taupin, Adult Neurogenesis and Neuroplasticity, Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience 24 (2006), 9-15.

10. Cytat pochodzi af Ann B. Barnet & Richard J. Barnet, The Young gest Minds: Parenting and Genes in the Development of Intellect and Emotion (New York: Simon og Schuster, 1998), 10.

11. The Flynn effect is named after James Flynn, who first described the 20th century IQ trend in developed countries in J.R. Flynn, Massive IQ Gains in 14 Countries:

What IQ tests really measure, Psychological Bulletin 101 (1987), 171-191.

12. This section draws heavily on the work of Richard E. Nisbett, Intelligence and How to Get It (New York: Norton, 2009). 13. The cited study is J. Protzko, J. Aronson and C. Blair, How to make a toddler smarter: evidence from the Intelligence Boosting Database, Perspectives in Psychological Science 8 (2013), 25-40.

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Sidenotes 176–187 ê 281 14. The cited study is S. M. Jaeggi, M. Buschkuehl, J. Jonides, and W. J. Perrig, Improving fluid intelligence with working memory training, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (2008), 6829–6829 6833 .

15. Failure to replicate the outcome of working memory training appears in: T. S. Redick, Z. Shipstead, T. L. Harrison, K. L. Hicks, D. E. Fried, D. Z. Hambrick, M. J. Kane, & R. W. Engle, No Evidence for Intelligence Improvement After Working Memory Training: Randomized, Placebo-Controlled study, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 142, 2013), 359-379.

16. Carol Dweck's research on the growth mindset is summarized in many places. See a nice summary by Marina Krakovsky, "The Effort Effect," Stanford Magazine, March/April 2007. Two of Dweck's articles can be found in: H. Grant and C. S. Dweck, Clarifying Goal Achievement and Their Impact, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003), pp. 541-553 and C.S. Dweck, The Perils and the Promise of Praise, Educational Leadership 65 (2007), pp. 34-39. She is also the author of Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (New York: Ballantine Books, 2006).

17. Dwecks citat er fra Krakovsky, "The Effect of Effort." 18. Dwecks citat er fra Po Bronson, "How to not talk to your kids," New York Times Magazine, 11. februar 2007.

19. Paul Tough, How Kids Succeed (New York: Houghton Miffl w Harcourt, 2012).

20. Anders Ericsson's work on conscious practice has been reported in many places, including Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers:

A Success Story (New York: Little, Brown, 2008). For an accessible introduction to Ericsson's work, see K. A. Ericsson and P. Ward, Capturing the naturally occurring expert advantage in the laboratory: Toward expert science and unique perforating, Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007), 346–350.

21. Mental imagination and its power as an aid to learning and memory has been valued since the time of the ancient Greeks.

However, psychologists did not begin to explore this topic in experimental studies until the 1960s. Allan Paivio's research has shown the power of images in controlled trials. Summary of his Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes on pages 188–193–282 of early research are found in A. Paivio, Imagery and Verbal Processes (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971).

22. Mark Twain, "How to Make History Dates Stick," Harper's, December 1914, available at www.twainquotes.com/History Dates/HistoryDates.html, accessed October 30, 2013.

23. In the history of mnemonics (and the attitude of psychologists and educators towards them) over the centuries, they have undergone various vicissitudes. They have been valued since Greek and Roman times and throughout the Middle Ages by educated people who needed to remember large amounts of information (e.g. to deliver a two-hour speech in the Roman Senate). In recent years, educators have dismissed them as useful only for rote learning. However, as we show in this chapter, this fee is not fair. Mnemonics, used by James Paterson and his students, can be used (as in the case of the ancient Greeks and Romans) as systems for organizing information retrieval. In short, mnemonic devices are not necessarily good for understanding complex information, but using a mnemonic system to retrieve learned information can be invaluable. James Worthy and Reed Hunt provide an excellent introduction to the history and psychological research of mnemonic devices in their book Mnemonology:

Mnemonics of the 21st Century (New York: Psychology Press, 2011).

24. James Paterson is a "memory athlete" who plays an increasingly popular sport in Europe, China and to some extent in the United States.

Joshua Foer wrote about this new subculture in his bestselling book Moonwalking with Einstein: The Art and Science of Remembering Everything (New York: Penguin, 2011). How long can it take a person to remember the order of a shuffled deck of cards? For you for a long time. For the memory athlete at the highest level, under two minutes. A video of Simon Reinhard memorizing a game of cards in 21.9 seconds is available at www.youtube.com/watch?v=sbinQ6GdOVk, accessed 30 October 2013. This was a world record at the time, but Reinhard has since beating it (21.1 seconds is the record at the time of writing). Reinhard broke 20 seconds in training sessions, but not yet in a public timed event (Simon Reinhard, Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http : / /ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Notes to pages 194–236 ê 283 personal communication in the form of a dinner conversation in St. Louis, MO, May 8, 2013 with Roddy Roediger and several others).

25. Michela Seong-Hyun Kim's description of her experience using mnemonics was given to Peter Brown by James Paterson in a private correspondence on 8 February 2013.

26. Peter Brown and Roddy Roediger interview with James Paterson, 4 January 2013, St. Louis, Mo.

27. Peter Brown interview med Karen Kim, 18. april 2013, St. Paul, MN.

8. Make It Stick 1. Peter Brown telephone interview with Michael Young, May 21, 2013. All Young quotes are from this interview.

2. Peter Brown's telephone interview with Stephen Madigan, 20 May 2013.

3. Peter Brown interview med Nathaniel Fuller, 29. april 2013, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

4. John McPhee, "Sketch no. 4," New Yorker, 29. april 2013, 32-38.

5. Peter Brown interview med Thelma Hunter, 30. april 2013, St. Paul, MN.

6. Peter Brown interview med Mary Pat Wenderoth, 7. maj 2013, Seattle, WA.

7. Empirical studies to test the effect of highly structured activities on reducing student absenteeism in science classes are S. Freeman, D. Haak and M. P. Wenderoth, Increased course structure improves per man in Introductory Biology, CBE Education in Life Sciences 10 (Summer). 2011), 175-186; also S. Freeman, E. O'Connor, J. W. Parks, D. H. Cunningham, D. Haak, C. Dirks, and M. P. Wenderoth, Recommend active learning per person introductory biology, CBE Life Sciences Education 6 (Summer 2007), 132–139.

8. Peter Brown's telephone interview with Michael Matthews, 2 May 2013.

9. Peter Brown's telephone interview with Kiley Hunkler, 21 May 2013.

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Noter til side 237–251 ê 284 10. Peter Brown interview med Kathleen McDermott, 20. juni 2013, Folly Beach, South Carolina.

11. Peter Brown's telephone interview with Kathy Maixner, 18 July 2013.

12. Peter Brown telephone interview with Kenneth Barber, 1 July 2013.

13. Peter Brown telephone interview with Richard Wynveen, 17 July 2013.

14. Peter Brown's telephone interview with Eric Isaacman, June 2, 2013.

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285 Below are some readings that form the basis and further illustrate the principles we have described in this book. These readings are only the tip of the iceberg; there are hundreds of articles in the scientific literature on these techniques. In the notes section, we provide references to studies and citations included in the text for readers to dive into. We tried to balance the need for more information without overwhelming the reader with overwhelming research details. Research Papers by Crouch, C. H., Fagen, A. P., Callan, J. P. and Mazur, E. (2004). Classroom Demonstrations: Learning Tools or Entertainment? American Journal of Physics, 72, 835-838. Interesting use of generation to enhance learning from classroom demonstrations. Suggested Reading Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Suggested Reading ê 286 Dunlosky, J., Rawson, KA, Marsh, EJ, Nathan, MJ, & Willing-ham, DT (2013). Enhancing student learning through effective learning techniques: promising directions in cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 14, 4-58. Describes techniques that research has shown to work in improving educational practice in both laboratory and field (educational) settings, as well as other techniques that do not work. Includes a thorough review of the scientific literature supporting (or not) each technique.

McDaniel, M.A. (2012). Put SPRINT into knowledge training: Training with SPacing, Retrieval and INTERleaving. in AF

Healy & L.E. Bourne Jr. (Eds.), Training cognition: Optimizing effectiveness, durability, and generalizability (pp. 267–286).

New York: Psychology Press. This chapter has pointed out that many training situations, from business to medicine to continuing education, tend to squeeze training into an intensive 'course' of several days. It summarizes the evidence that spacing and interleaving would be more effective in promoting learning and memory, and provides some ideas on how to incorporate these techniques into training.

McDaniel, M.A. and Donnelly, C.M. (1996). Learning by analogy and detailed questions. Journal of Educational Psychology 88, 508-519. These experiments illustrate the use of several exploratory techniques for learning technical material, including visual imagery and self-questioning techniques. This article is more technical than others on this list.

Richland, L.E., Linn, M.C., and Bjork, R.A. (2007). Instruction. In: F. Durso, R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky, & T. Perfect (Eds.), Handbook of Applied Cognition (2nd ed., pp. 553–583). Chester: Wiley. It provides examples of how the desired difficulties, including generation, can be implemented in a teaching environment.

Roediger, H.L., Smith, M.A. and Putnam, A.L. (2011). Ten advantages of tests and their use in educational practice. in B

H. Ross (ed.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press. It summarizes the many potential benefits of practicing retrieval as a learning technique.

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Suggested Reading ê 287 Books Brooks, D. The Social Animal:

Hidden sources of love, character and achievement. New York: Random House, 2011.

Coyle, D. The talent code: Greatness is not born. He is an adult. Here's how you do it. New York: Bantam Dell, 2009.

Doidge, N. The Brain Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumphs at the Frontier of Brain Science. New York: Penguin Books, 2007.

Duhigg, C. The power of habit: Why we do what we do in life and business. New York: Random House, 2012.

Dunlosky, J. i Metcalfe, J. Metacognition. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2009.

Dunning, D. Self-insight: Obstacles and detours on the road to self-knowledge (Essays in social psychology). New York:

Psychological Press, 2005.

Dweck, C. S. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Ballantine Books, 2008.

Foer, J. Moonwalking with Einstein: The Art and Science of Remembering Everything. Nowy Jork: Pingwin, 2011.

Gilovich, T. How We Know What Is Not: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life. New York: Free Press, 1991.

Gladwell, M. Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking. New York: Small, Brown & Co., 2005.

––––. Outliers: En succeshistorie. New York: Little Brown & Co, 2008.

Healy, A.F. & Bourne, L.E., Jr. (ed.). Cognitive training: optimizing performance, persistence, and generalizability. New York: Psychology Press, 2012.

Kahneman, D. Thinking fast and slow. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011.

Mayer, R. E. Applying the science of learning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2010.

Nisbett, R. E. Intelligence and how to get it. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2009.

Sternberg, R.J. and Grigorenko, E.L. Dynamic Testing: The Nature and Measurement of Learning Potential. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 2002.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Recommended Reading ê 288 Twardy, pp. How Kids Succeed: Persistence, Curiosity, and Hidden Strengths of Character. Boston: Houghton Miffl i Harcourt, 2012.

Willingham, DT When to trust the experts: How to tell good science from bad science in education. San Francisco: Josey-Bass, 2012.

Worthen, J.B. & Hunt, R.R. Mnemonics: 21st Century Mnemonics (Essays in Cognitive Psychology). New York:

Psychological Press, 2011.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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289 Writing this book was truly a collaborative effort. The authors collaborated for three years in the most productive way. Many people and organizations contributed useful support and insight. We thank the James S. McDonnell Foundation of St. Louis, Missouri, for the grant “Applying Cognitive Psychology to Enhance Educational Practice” to Henry Roediger and Mark McDaniel with Henry Roediger as Principal Investigator. This grant supported eleven researchers who collaborated for ten years on research aimed at translating cognitive science into educational science. Many of the points in our book come from research supported by the McDonnell Foundation.

We thank the other nine members of our group, from whom we learned much: Robert and Elizabeth Bjork of the University of California, Los Angeles, John Dunlosky and Katherine Rawson of Kent State University, Larry Jacoby of Ac know ledg ments Brown, Peter C et eel. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Acquaintances ê 290 Washington University, Elizabeth Marsh of Duke University, Kathleen McDermott of Washington University, Janet Metcalfe of Columbia University, and Hal Pashler of the University of California, San Diego. We especially thank John Bruer, President of the McDonnell Foundation, and Susan Fitzpatrick, Vice President, for their guidance and support, and the family of James S. McDonnell. We would also like to thank the Student Exploration and Learning Program of the Institute for Educational Sciences (USA)

Department of Education) for a series of grants that supported Roediger and McDaniel's research in the school environment, in collaboration with Kathleen McDermott. Without this support, the work we did in Illinois at Columbia Middle School and Columbia High School would not have been possible. Thanks to our program staff at CASL, Elizabeth Albro, Carol O'Donnell, and Erin Higgins. In addition, we thank teachers, principals, and students at Columbia Schools, especially Roger Chamberlain (principal of Columbia Middle School when we began our research there) and Patrice Bain, the first teacher who pioneered the implementation of our study in the classroom. Other teachers who have allowed us to conduct experiments in their classrooms include Teresa Fehrenz, Andria Matzenbacher, Michelle Spivey, Ammie Koch, Kelly Landgraf, Carleigh Ottwell, Cindy McMullan, Missie Steve, Neal O'Donnell, and Linda Malone. The research was assisted by a wonderful group of research assistants, including Kristy Duprey, Lindsay Brockmeier, Barbie Huelser, Lisa Cressey, Marco Chacon, Anna Dinndorf, Laura D'Antonio, Jessye Brick, Allison Obenhaus, Meghan McDoniel, and Aaron Theby. Pooja Agarwal played a key role in this project at all stages, conducting research on a daily basis while a student at the University of Washington, followed by Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Achievements ê 291 project management as a trainee with a PhD degree. Many of the practical suggestions in this book come from our classroom experiments. Dart NeuroScience of San Diego, California supported our research on memory athletes with a generous grant.

Roediger served as principal investigator and was joined by David Balota, Kathleen McDermott and Mary Pyc. We tested several memory athletes for this project and are grateful to James Paterson for allowing us to use his story in the book.

We are especially grateful for the support of Tim Tully, Dart's chief scientific officer, who first approached us with the idea of identifying people with significantly better memory abilities. Our grant agencies have been generous in their support, but we usually disclaim that the opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not represent the views of the James S. McDonnell Foundation, Institute of Educational Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, or Dart NeuroScience. Roediger and McDaniel would like to thank the many undergraduate and graduate students who have worked with us and helped with the projects in this book. Alumni who worked with Roediger on relevant projects during this period include Pooja Agarwal, Andrew Butler, Andy DeSoto, Michael Goode, Jeff Karpicke, Adam Putnam, Megan Smith, Victor Sungkhasettee, and Franklin Zaromb. Postdoctoral fellows included Pooja Agarwal, Jason Finley, Bridgid Finn, Lisa Geraci, Keith Lyle, David McCabe, Mary Pyc, and Yana Weinstein. Scientific staff working on the project included Jane McConnell, Jean Ortmann-Sotomayor, Brittany Butler, and Julie Gray. Mark McDaniel would like to thank his students who worked on the research for this book: Aimee Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Relations ê 292 Calendar, Cynthia Fadler, Dan Howard, Khuyen Nguyen, Mathew Robbins, and Kathy Wildman and his team of research assistants, Michael Cahill, Mary Derbish, Yiyi Liu, and Amanda Meyer. His postdoctoral associates working on related projects included Jeri Little, Keith Lyle, Anaya Thomas, and Ruthann Thomas. We are grateful to people from many walks of life who have shared their stories of learning and remembering to help us illustrate the important ideas in this book. Thanks to Ken Barber of Jiffy Lube International, Bonnie Blodgett, Mia Blundetto, Derwin Brown, Matt Brown, Patrick Castillo, Vince Dooley, Mike Ebersold, Nathaniel Fuller, Catherine Johnson, Sarah Flanagan, Bob Fletcher, Alex Ford, Steve Ford, David Garman , Jean Germain, Lucy Gerold, Bruce Hendry, Michael Hoffman, Peter Howard, Kiley Hunkler, Thelma Hunter, Erik Isaacman, Karen Kim, Young Nam Kim, Nancy Lageson, Douglas Larsen, Stephen Madigan, Kathy Maixner, Michael Matthews, Kathleen McDermott, Michael McMurchie and Rick Wynveen in Renewal by Andersen, Jeff Moseley, James Paterson and his students from Bellerbys College (Stephanie Ong, Victoria Gevorkova and Michela Seong-Hyun Kim), Bill Sands, Andy Sobel, Annette Thompson and Dave Nystrom from Farmers Insurance, Jon Wehrenberg, Mary Pat Wenderoth and Michael Young. Thanks to Lorri Freifeld of Training magazine for introducing us to the leaders of exemplary corporate training programs. A few people have kindly read earlier drafts of the book or selected chapters. Thanks to Ellen Brown, Kathleen McDermott, Henry Moyers, Thomas Moyers and Steve Nelson. As is customary in the sciences, our publisher hired five of our colleagues in the scientific community to review the book anonymously in manuscript: we thank the three who later identified themselves - Bob Bjork, Dan Schacter, Brown, Peter C. et al . Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Acquaintances ê 293 and Dan Willingham - and two whose identities remain unknown to us. Finally, we thank Elizabeth Knoll, our editor, and the professional staff at Harvard University Press for their insight, guidance, and dedication to the quality of this book.

Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Brown, Peter C. i. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Available information versus accessible information, 268n8 Achievement: Attributions to, 180–182; in science, impact on class structure, 232–234, 283n7 Science achievement gap, on closing, 232–234, 283n7 Acquired skills, learning as, 2 Agarwal, Pooja, 34 Alzheimer's disease, 164 Ambiguity, hunger for narrative w, –112 Solving anagrams: difficulty and working memory w, 91–92, 270n17; distraction from one-sided conversation, 109–110; mixed practice w, 52–53, 264–265n6 Analog transfer, 278n14 Analytical skills: and achievement in science, 233; in Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning, 228; and intelligence, 148, 150 Andersen Windows and Doors, 247–250 Test-taking anxiety, 91–92 The application of learning, in Bloom's taxonomy of learning, 228 The student model in training, 127 Aristotle, 28 Artists, learning painting styles, 53 - 54, 84, 265n7 Associative learning, 172 Index 295 Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 296 Attitude: effects on brain training, 178; growth mindset, 179–183, 233, 281n16 Attributions of achievement and failure, 180–182 Auditory learning style, 143, 144, 145 Comparing available information with available information, 268n8 Axons, 166, 169–170; myelination, 169, 170-171, 178 Azimuth control, 21, 235-236 Bach-y-Rita, Paul, 168-169 Bacon, Francis, 28, 131, 274n1 Bain, Patrice, 33, 36 Barber, Ken , , , , 246 247, 284n12 Barnet, Ann, 173 Barnet, Richard, 173 Baseball training, 6-7, 79-81, 85, 86, 206, 268n9 Rejection training, 6-7, 79-81, 85, 86, 206 Motor testing in the bean bag, 46, 51, 86, 263n1 Bellerbys College, 193, 211 The fallacy of hindsight, 115–116, 273n11 The big lie technique, 116 Bird classification, learning, 54–55, 84–85 Bjork, Elizabeth, 69 , 98, 266n12, 266– 267n2, 268n10, 270n19 Bjork, Robert, 69, 98, 111, 145, 266n12, 266– 267n2, 267n6, 69, Blindness, 267n6, 6, 267n6, 69 , 207 Blodgett, Bonnie, 94–98 209, 270n18 Bloom, Benjamin, 228 Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning, 228–229, 232, 233 Blundetto, Frank, 68 Blundetto, Mia, 67–272, 67–162, 67–166, 1 168 The Brain: Changes in Learning, 7, 199, 226; memory consolidation by, 20, 28, 49, 100, 172; coding information w, 72-73, 100, 267n3; frontal lobes 170-171; in the formation of habits, 171–172; in motor science, 51-52, 264n5; myelination of nerve fibers w, 169, 170-171, 178; neurogenesis w, 172; plasticity, 66, 142, 164–173, 184, 279n3; remodeling in conscious practice, 184; training, 176–179 The Brain That Changes (Doidge), 168 Branson, Richard, 139, 140 Brazilian street business children, math skills, 149–150, 276n10 Brooklyn Free School, 123 Brown, Matt, 1–2, 10 –12 , 19, 20, 197 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 297 Bruer, John T., 166, 167, 175 Business Training Methods, 50, 240–252 Calibration of Learning Assessments, 4–5, 125–130, 210–211; recovery exercises and testing, 125, 202–203 California Polytechnic State University, baseball training at, 79–81, 86 Carnahan, Mel, 108, 271n3 Carson, Kit, 165, 167, 279n2 Chamberlain, Roger, 36, 36–37 44–45 , 261n9 China Airlines Incident, 106–109, 271n3 Chugani, Harry T., 168 The Slicing Process in Habit Formation, 171, 198 Classical Conditioning, 199 Climb for Memory Foundation, 164 Coaching Methods. See Sports training, cognitive differences in learning: For rule teachers and example teachers, 155–157, 278–279n15; and Structuring, 153-155 Cognitive Psychology, 8 Columbia Public School District (Illinois), 238-239; test-enhanced learning w, 20, 33–37, 258n13, 260n8 Columbus State University, 212–213 Common Core State Standards Initiative, 238 Competency, reassessment, 104–105, 121–123, 124, 273 Understanding: Additional learning: Bloomn, 17. 228; Judgment Guidance, 126 Conceptual Knowledge, 55, 84–85, 265n8; versus factual knowledge, 55 Conditioning, Classical, 199 Memory concordance, Social influences, 117 Connectome, 170 Memory consolidation, 28, 49, 63, 73–75, 100, 267n4; neurogenesis w, 172; and Consolidation, 20, 74, 82-83, 101, 268-269n11; in a dream, 63, 73, 267n4 Infecting memory with social influences, 117, 273n12 Contemporary educational psychology, 14 Learning context, 6; concrete and personal, 11 Control, feeling, growth mindset, 179–183 Cramming, 3, 31, 44, 48, 63, 203, 226 Creative intelligence, 148, 150 Creativity, 17–18, 30 Crystallized intelligence, 147, Brun Peter C .et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 298 A culture of continuous improvement at Andersen Windows and Doors, 247–250 Cumulative learning: supported by cumulative quizzes, 38–39; 238; in Columbia Public School District, 238–239; as teaching strategy, 227; testing, 238 Curse of knowledge, 115–116, 119, 273n11, 273n16 Dartmouth College, 12, 257n5 Darwin Awards, 104 Delaying Gratification, 162–163, 279n1 1 Purposeful practice 8–418 Dell, 6218, 6218, 104 Dendrites , 166, 169–170 Desirable Learning disabilities, 68–69, 98, 160, 226–228, 229, 266–267n2 Developmental psychology, 8 Learning disabilities, 7, 67–101; as desired, 68-69, 98, 160, 226-228, 229, 266-267n2; in jump training, 68-78 years; in seeded practice 4, 47, 49, 81, 82, 205; and strength and duration of memory, 9; for students, 201; as teaching strategy, 225–228, 229; as undesirable, 92, 98–99 Discrimination skills, 65, 101; in identifying artists' painting styles, 53–54, 84, 265n7; in bird identification, 54–55, 84–85; supported by interwoven and varied practices, 53–55, 65, 84–85, 101 Disraeli, Benjamin, 109 Distortions of memory, 109–118; by false consensus, 117, 273n13; in confidence, 116; in flash memories, 117–118, 273n14; hindsight, 115–116, 273n11; in hunger for narrative, 109–112; in hypnosis, 114, 272n9; fantasy inflation, 113, 272n7; in interference, 114-115; in social influence, 116–117; in suggestion, 113–114 Doidge, Norman, 168 Donahue, Barney, 136–137 Dooley, Vince, 60–62, 120, 198, 222, 266n11 Dowling, Joe, 217 Dreams, memory consolidation in, 42 Kenneth, 42 Dunn, Rita, 144 Dunning, David, 109, 121, 122, 126, 273n17 Dunning-Kruger effect, 121, 273n17 Dweck, Carol, 92, 139, 179-183, 2133, 151, 133, 511, 511, 133 , 128, 51, 5, 5, 5 277n12; enters, 152 Dyslexia, 139-140, 141-143, 159, 275nn3-4 Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 299 Early childhood education programs, changes in IQ w, 175–176 Ebersold, Mike, 23–27, 29, 59, 120, 127, 155, 198, 222, 259n1 Edison, Thomas, 93 Effort: advanced learning in, 7; brain changes, 199, 226; conceptual learning in 84–85; and desirable learning disabilities, 68–69, 98, 160, 226–228, 229, 266–267n2; affects misattributions, 180–182; and generational effect, 32; in a growth mindset, 179, 180–181; in intertwined practice, 47, 50, 81, 207; championship of, 83–84; mental models in, 83, 101; in performance goals and learning goals, 180-181; praise of influence, 181–182; memory reconsolidation in 82–83; in healing practice, 41, 43, 79, 203, 262n14; in seeded practice 4, 47, 49, 81, 82, 205; and strength and durability of memory, 9, 49; in student learning, 201; teachers' explanations, 225–226; in different practices, 47, 81 Einstein, Albert, 17 Process of elaboration, 5–6, 36, 207–208; in Andersen Windows and Doors, 250; in football training, 62; lifelong learners, 219, 223–225; medical students, 214, 215; in reflection, 209–210; with overview map, 208, 231; as learning strategy, 208, 227, 231 Embedded questions, advantages for low structure builders, 155, 277n13 Experiential learning research, 9 The coding process, 72–73, 100, 267n3 Influence of environment on IQ, 173–176 Ericsson, Anders , 92–93, 183, 184 –185, 195, 224, 281n20 Erie Lackawanna Railroad, 137–138 Flawless Learning, 90, 270n16; myth, 90-94 Error, 90-94; on the inept gardener, 94–98; feedback on 39-40, 44, 90, 101; and the Festival of Errors, 93; generative learning in 94–98; in the illusion of knowledge, 102–130; and intellectual ability, 7, 92; in practice of utilization, 202; in Social Memory Contagion, 117 Assessment Skills, in Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning, 229 Exemplary learning, 160; versus rule learning, 155-157, 278-279n15 Experience, learning of, 66, 133; generational effect in 208–209; on Investments Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 300 Experience strategies (continued), 132–139, 152; in medical education, 58–59 Expert per for mance, 92–93; intentional practice of 183–185; mental models in, 83; self-discipline, persistence, and perseverance required, 182, 183, 199 Explicit memory, 56 Errors: attributions, 180–182; and Flawless Learning, 90–94; fear of, 91-92; as source of inspiration, 93 False consensus effect, 117, 273n13 False memories, 267n3 Familiarity: ongoing practice in, 64; sense of knowledge in, 116; learning assessment, 126 Farmers Insurance training program, 50, 241–244 Far Side cartoons, 5 feedback, 261n12; in the training program Andersen Windows and Doors, 248; delayed and immediate, comparison 39–40; on error, 39–40, 44, 90, 101; at Jiffy Lube University, 245, 246; learning assessment based on, 122, 126–127; lack, overestimation of competence, 122; in Motor Learning, 40, 261n12 Fellows, Timothy, 216–217 Fault Festival, 93 Firearms Training, Simulations in, 128–130 Fire Extinguisher Location Test, 13, 258n7 Fire Hose Teaching Method, 10, 12 First Republic of Texas, 138, 138 , Flash , 117–118, 273n14 Flashcards: In Search Practice, 3, 204; in staggered practice, 64, 204; in student-centered learning, 44, 124, 274n19; in varied practice, 65–66 Fleming, Neil, 144 Flight simulator training, 11–12 Fluency: the illusion of mastery, 17, 82, 116, 202, 210; doctrine, 126; in language, 141 Fluid intelligence, 146-147, 176-178 Flynn, James, 280n11 Flynn effect, 173, 280n11 Foer, Joshua, 194-195 Soccer training and exercise, 60-62, 120, 124, 120, 124; reflection in, 62, 222 Forgetting, 267n3; as an aid to new learning, 77-78, 267-268nn6-7; curve, 28, 259n2; in mass practice, 47, 48; in medical education, 59-60 years; on relocation or not using restitution tips, 77–79; short-term memory, 72-73, 100; in Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 301 practice abandoned, 63, 82; impact testing, 30–32, 39, 259–260n6 Fortune Magazine, 139, 142 Fremont, John, 165, 167 Frontal lobes, 170–171 Fuller, Nathaniel, 217–220, 239, 2843n3 Science – 9 Gardening, 209 Gardner, 9 . Howard, 147-148, 275n8 Garman, David, 103, 222, 271n2 Geiger, Gadi, 142 Generation effect, 32, 87-88, 94-98, 208-209, 260n14, 260n14; in Andersen Windows and Doors, 250; for the inept gardener, 94–98, 209; for lifelong learners, 220-222; as learning strategy, 227 Genetic influences, 7, 163, 165; on the structure of the brain, 165, 168, 170; on intellectual ability, 92, 173, 174, 178 George Mason University, 12, 257n4 Georgia Regents University, 211, 213 Gladwell, Malcolm, 106 Goals: in purposeful practice, 183; on per mance and learning, comparison, 180-181 Goldman-Rakic, Patricia, 167, 279n3 Gratification, delay, 162-163, 279n1 Gray matter, 169-170 Grigorenko, Elena, 151, 279n12 Growth mindset, 1317n12 ; and Achievement in Science, 233 Habit formation, the sharing process, 171–172 The power of habit, 65; compared to instantaneous strength, 63, 266n12 Horse racing handicap, mathematics and IQ w, 150, 276– 277n11 Harris, Carol, 113, 272n6 Hendry, Bruce, 131, 132– 139, 152, 152, 608, 132 Supreme Duty ( Sullenberger), 223 Perspective Fallacy, 115–116, 273n11 Hippocampus, 172 Hockey Training, 52, 65 Honey and Mumford Learning Styles Questionnaire, 144 Horse Racing Impairment, Sucess 1502Q,7c2 Hard), 182 Human Connectome Project, 170 Hunkler, Kiley, 21, 235-236, 283n9 Hunter, Thelma, 223-225, 283n5 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 302 Hypnosis, memory distortion, 114, 272n9 Ice hockey training, 52, 65 Illusion of knowledge, 15–17, 21, 81, 102–130, 210, 258n11, 274n23; automatic System 1 and controlled System 2 w, 105–109; in brain training exercises, 178; memory distortion w, 109-118; even, 17, 82, 116, 202, 210; in mass practice 82; in reading, 15-16, 17, 116; teaching strategies in, 229, 230; test w, 4–5, 16, 17, 116, 210 Images as memory cues, 186–188, 193–194, 195–196, 211, 224, 281–282n21 Imagination explosion, memory distortion, 2 71213n, implicit , 56 Indigenous Knowledge vs. Academic Knowledge, 148–149 Inductive skills, 101 Inner Gate Acupuncture, 240, 250–252 Professional development, 239–240 Teaching styles, 145–146, 275n6. See also Teaching Methods Intellectual Abilities, 7, 165, 173–183; control, 7, 92; influence of environmental factors, 173–176; and fear of failure, 92; genetic influences on, 92, 173, 174, 178; growth mindset, 179–183; as the cable, 7, 165, 166, 226 Intelligence, 146–150, 159, 275nn7–8; brain training exercises, 176–179; crystallized, 147, 176; floating, 146–147, 176–178; dimensions 147, 148-149; many kinds, 147–148, 275n8; The Sternberg Model, 148–150 Intelligence and How to Get It (Nisbett), 173, 280n12 IQ, 147, 165, 173–176; influence of environmental factors, 173–176; Flynn effect w, 173, 280n11; and ability to impair horse racing, 150, 276–277n11 Disorders, 114–115; learning outcomes, 86–87, 269n13 Interlaced practice, 4, 49–50, 64–65, 66, 205–207, 269n12; on bird identification, 55, 84–85; conceptual learning in 84–85; memory consolidation by, 75; discrimination skills, 53–55, 65, 84–85, 101; effort w, 47, 50, 81, 207; in Farmers' Insurance, 50, 242–244; football team, 61, 62; habit strength w, 63, 65; lifelong learners, 219, 220; mass practice compared to, 47, 49, 50, 53-55, 206-207, 263-264n2; Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 303 mastery in, 83, 84; on math problems, 49-50, 264n4; in medical education, 58; under training at a military jump school, 71; motor skills, 65, 80, 206; on artists' painting style, 53–54, 84, 265n7; in pilot training, 12; for distance restitution practices, 204; as research strategy, 205-207; as learning strategy, 228 Interpersonal intelligence, 147 Intrapersonal intelligence, 147 Investment strategies, cognition, 132–139, 152, 158 Isaacman, Erik, 250–252, 284n14 Jacoby, Larry, 111 James, William, 528 James, William, 528 Jiffy University – 247 Jobs, Steve, 93–94 Johnson, Catherine, 128–129 Learning Judgments, 3, 4–5, 125–130, 159; calibration, 4-5, 125-130, 210-211; tips, 126; feedback in, 126–127; the illusion of knowledge in (see the illusion of knowledge); overestimation of competence in, 104-105, 121-123, 124, 273-17; in peer learning, 125–126; in student-centered learning, 124; influence tests, 4–5, 16, 17, 125, 202–203 Jump School, military training, 67–78; smoke jump training po, 78 Kahneman, Daniel, 105, 108, 123 Kaiser Steel, 138 Kaizen events, 248–249 Keller, Helen, 112–113, 272n6 Kelley, Colleen, 111 Kennedy, John F., 117 Kennedy, John F. . , 144 Kinko's, 140 Knew-it-all-long effect, 116 Knowledge: accessible and accessible information in, 268n8; in Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning, 228; conceptual, 55, 84–85, 265n8; and Creativity, 17–18, 30; curse, 115–116, 119, 273n11, 273n16; illusion (see Illusion of Knowledge); native and academic, Comparison, 148–149; and championship, 18; and overestimation of competence, 104-105, 121-123, 124, 273-17; required for new learning, 5, 100; download tips, 76–79; System 1 and System 2 w, 105–109, 115 Kompon, Jamie, 52 Kruger, Justin, 121, 122, 273n17 Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 304 Language proficiency, 141 Larsen, Douglas, 56, 59, 60, 64, 66, 155, 239, 265–266n10 Larson, Gary, 5 LaRussa, Tony, 140–141 Learning and Skills Research Center, 2753n targets versus per mance targets, 180–181 Learning section, 89, 210, 232 Learning styles, 4, 94, 131–132, 139–146, 275nn5–6; dynamic tests compared to 151; in dyslexia, 139-140, 141-143; and teaching styles, 145–146, 275n6; building structure compared with 153; The VARK Approach, 144 Theories of Learning, 8-17 Learning Tips: For Students, 201-217; for lifelong learners, 217–225 Leitner, Sebastian, 64 Leitner box, 64 Leonetti, Oliver, 250, 251, 252 Lepla, Sam, 135–137 Lettvin, Jerome, 142 Lifelong learners, 2, 217–225; deepening, 219, 223-225; generation through 220-222; reflection, 222–223; search practice, 217–220 Linguistic intelligence, 147 Logical-mathematical intelligence, 147 Long-term memory, 49, 73, 82, 100; consolidation, 73–75 Madigan, Stephen, 216, 283n2 Maixner, Kathy, 240–241, 251, 284n11 Maixner Group, 240 Mallow, Johannes, 196 Manhattan Free School, 123 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 142 Mass Practice, 9e 10, 63 ; on bird identification, 55; prop as, 3, 31, 44, 48, 63, 203, 226; rapid increases at 9-10, 47, 125; mastery illusion in, 82; interlaced training vs. 47, 49, 50, 53-55, 206-207, 263-264n2; fine motor skills, 52, 80, 81; myth, 47–48; on artists' painting style, 53–54, 265n7; restitution practices versus 31, 44, 203, 261n11; short-term memory w, 82; seeded practice vs. 47, 48, 49, 204–205, 263–264n2; varied practice compared to 47, 53–55 Coping, 159; ingredients, 18; intentional practice of 183–185; in effort, 83–84; illusion, 4–5, 15–17 (see also illusion of knowledge); medical training, 56-60 years; mental models w, 118-120 Mathematics: Brazilian street business children, 149-150, 276n10; in Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 305 horse racing impairment, 150, 276–277n11; intertwined practices, 49–50, 264n4; joint practice of, 53 Matthews, Michael D., 126, 234-236, 283n8 Mazur, Eric, 119, 125-126, 273n15 McCaw, Craig, 139-140 McDaniel, Mark, 145 McDermott, Kathleen, 28227, 284n10 McPhee, John, 220–222, 224, 225 Medical education, 56–60, 211–215; complex mastery in 56-60; professional development in 239; practical experience in 58-59; reflection in, 26–27, 59, 215, 222; search practices in 23–27, 29, 57–58, 60, 212, 213–215; distributed practice in, 48–49, 212, 214–215, 264n3; test w, 57, 60, 213, 214, 265–266n10 Memory, 2; in associative learning, 172; consolidation (see Memory consolidation); distortions (see Memory distortions); learning effort, 9, 49; under development, 207–208; coding information w, 72-73, 100, 267n3; pronounced, 56; false, 267n3; false consensus effect of,117,273n13; influence of intimacy, 116; flashbulb, 117-118, 273n14; smooth, 116; and fluid intelligence, 176–178; and forgets the curves, 28.259n2; generational effect w, 32, 87–88, 269n14; impact on after-the-fact bias, 115-116, 273n11; effect on hypnosis, 114, 272n9; effect of inflation on imagination, 113, 272n7; classified, 56; impact of disturbances, 114–115; long-term, 49, 73-75, 82, 100; mental models w, 118–120; with mnemonic devices, 163–164, 185–198 (see also mnemonic devices); temporary and customary force 63, 266n12; influential narratives, 109–112; in solicitation practice, 3–4, 19–20, 75–76; short-term, 49, 72-73, 75, 82, 90, 100; social influences on, 116–117, 273n12; in staggered practice, 63, 82, 205; influence of suggestion, 113–114; gain testing, 19–20, 29, 30–32, 39, 259n5, 261n11; works (See Working Memory) Memory athletes, 164, 166, 193, 194–197, 282–283n24 Memory tips, 185–198. See also Mnemonic devices Memory palaces, 185–186, 191–194, 211 Memory span, 196 Trace memory, 72; consolidation, 73-75 Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 306 Mental models, 6–7, 83, 101, 118–120, 257n1; building structure, 153 Mentors, 140 Metacognition, 16, 102, 121, 169, 270–271n1 Method of loci, 185–186 Michelangelo, 184 Training in a military jump school, 67–78; smoke jump training po, 78 Mischel, Walter, 162, 279n1 Mnemonic Devices, 163–164, 185–198, 211; in farmer insurance training, 243, 244; historical, 189, 282n23; memorial palaces as, 185–186, 191–194, 211; mental images as, 186-188, 193-194, 195-196, 211, 224, 281-282n21; psychology students, 163, 186, 191–194, 211; rhyme schemes ace, 188–189; songs like, 189; visual images ace, 187-188, 193-194, 195-196, 211, 282n22 Instantaneous strength vs. usual strength, 63, 266n12 Walking on the moon with Einstein (Foer), 195 Morris, Errol, 109, 1266n12 40; poof study 46, 51, 86, 263n1; reviews of, 40, 261n12; in the formation of habits, 171–172; intertwined practices 65, 80, 206; mass exercise, 52, 80, 81; Varied practice, 46, 51-52, 264n5 Mozart, 184 Multiple Choice, 41, 261n12, 262n14 Multiple Intelligences, 147-148, 275n8 Musical Intelligence, 147 Myelin, 169, 170-17r, 170-171s National Institutes of Health of Health Human Connectome Project, 170 Naturalistic intelligence, 148 Nervous system: axons and dendrites in, 166, 169-171, 178; brain in (see Brain); in the formation of habits, 171–172; myelination, 169, 170–171, 178, 280n8; neurogenesis w, 172; synapses in, 166–167, 170 Neurogenesis, 172 Neurons, 166; generation, 172; synapses, 10, 166–167 Neuroplasticity, 66, 142, 164–173, 184, 279n3 Neuroscience, 8; brain plasticity w, 164, 166–173 New Yorker, 220 New York Times, 29, 109, 169 Nisbett, Richard, 173, 178, 280n12 Nutrition and IQ, 174–175 Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 307 Open book test, 40, 261–262n13 Orfalea, Paul, 140 Osmosis social learning platform, 240 Artists' painting style, intertwined and massive identification practices, 53–54, 84, 265n7 Paivio, Allan, 281–, 282n21 Pashler, Harold, 145 , 146 Paterson, James, 163–164, 166, 193–197, 282–283n24 Peer instruction, 125–126; in test groups, 230–231 Peer review, 127 Penny memory test, 12–13, 258n7 Per for mance: attributions, 180–182; in deliberate practice, 183–185; expert (See Expert per for mance); goals of, compared with learning goals, 180-181; in a growth mindset, 179–183; self-discipline, endurance, and persistence required for 182, 183, 199 Pilot training, 1–2, 10–12, 19, 169; and China Airlines incident, 106–109, 271n3; reflected in, 223; testing as search practice in, 20 Plant classification, learning, 96–98 Brain Plasticity, 66, 142, 164–173, 279n3; in targeted practice, 184 Police training: reflection, 222; firearm simulations e.g. 128–130 Polk, James, 165, 167 Practical Intelligence, 148, 150 Practice as you play. See Simulation Training Praise and Response to Challenges, 181–182 Preparing the Mind for Learning, 86. See also Generation Effect Pre Knowledge as the Basis of New Learning, 5, 100 Problem Solving, 4, 278–14; effort w, 86, 181-182; errors in, 91-92, 101; generational effect w, 87-88, 94, 208-209; interwoven practices in, 49–50, 264n4; mental models in, 120; praise of influence, 181–182; principal students and exemplary students, 156–157; transfer of learning w, 157, 278n14 Proust, Marcel, 79 Psychology students, 211; the illusion of calm, 16; mnemonics used by, 163, 186, 191–194, 211; practice of recovering at intervals, 216–217; writing strategy for learning, 89–90 Qstream training platform, 240 Quizing. See Test Reading: Ability w, 141; in dyslexia, 139-140, 141-143; generation effect w, 209; Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 308 Reading (continued) and changes in IQ, 175–176; interference as learning aid in, 86-87, 269n13; and rereading (see Rereading); in VARK Approach to Learning Styles, 144 Reagan, Ronald, 24 Recitation and Re-reading, 30 Memory Reconsolidation, 20, 74, 82–83, 101, 268–269n11 Reflection, 26–27, 690, 280 -210; in football training, 62, 222; lifelong learners, 222-223; in medical education, 26–27, 59, 215, 222; in pilot training, 223; in police training, 222; building structures, 155; with “write to learn” and “learn” sections, 89–90, 210, 232, 269n15 Reflexes: Automatic System 1w, 105–106, 107, 108, 115; neural circuits in, 171; repeated training required for 25, 27 years Trial training: 61-62 football team; as displaced practice, 76 Reinhard, Simon, 282–283n24 Recharge learning, 82, 268n10 Remembrance of past things (Proust), 79 Renewal of Andersen, 247–250 Repetition: in football training, 61; the illusion of mastery in, 15–16; no study in, 12–16, 258n7; in mass practice, 3, 9–10; reading (see Rereading); acquisition practices, 28–29, 31–32, 43; study council, 12, 204–205; testing, 31–32, 44, 125, 203–204, 263n17 Rereading, 3, 10, 14–16, 258nn9–10; liquid, 17, 116, 202; the illusion of knowledge in 15–16, 17, 116; medical students, 214; recitation compared to 30; search practice and testing versus 41, 42, 44, 202–203; spaced practice, 14, 15 Picking up tracks, 75, 76–79, 100, 267n5; and information available, 268n8; and memory distortions, 112 Search exercise, 3–4, 11–12, 23–45, 75–76, 100; at Columbia Public School District, 34, 36, 238; in commercial education, 240; memory consolidation w, 74; effort w, 41, 43, 79, 203, 262n14; football team, 62; in free withdrawal exercise, 231; with study paragraphs, 89, 232; lifelong learners, 217-220; long-term benefits, 35, 39, 44; mass exercise vs. 31, 44, 203, 261n11; championship in, 83; in medical education, 23–27, 29, 57–58, 60, 212, 213–215; Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 309 neurogenesis w, 172; psychology students, 216–217; reflection in (see reflection); repetition 28–29, 31–32, 43; rereading compared to, 41, 42, 44, 202–203; spaces, 32, 43, 203-205; in student-centered learning, 124; as study technique, 41, 201-205, 262-15; as learning strategy, 227, 229–230, 231, 235; test as, 19-20, 28-44, 201-203. See also Recovery power testing, 266n12 Rhyme Patterns as Memory Cues, 188–189 Riverside Military Academy, 236 Rohrer, Doug, 145 Role-playing in Business Coaching, 241, 252 Learning Rules, 133; vs. learning by example, 155-157, 278-279n15; and Building Structures, 157 Rumsfeld, Donald, 17 Introduction to the Schema, 278n14 Academic Courses: The Achievement Gap, 232–234, 283n7; in Columbia Public School District, 238-239 Self-Education, 123-124, 274-18; Flashcards m, 44, 124, 274n19 Sensory skills retraining, 168–169 9/11 terrorist attacks, Flash memories, 118, 273n14 Azimuth shooting, Ace test, 21, 235–236 Short-term response tests, 264n1, short-term memory tests, 4- 264 49, 72-73, 75, 82, 100; coding information w, 100; oblivion, 72–73, 100; in mass practice 82; fetch z, 90, 100 Simulation training: in football training, 61–62; at Jiffy Lube University, 246; in training of a military jumping school, 61-72 years old; in medical school, 57-58 years old; from pi, 11–12, 20; police, 128–130; practice while playing, 57–58, 85–86, 130; role play as simulation, 241, 243–244, 252 Skinner, B. F., 90, 270n16 Sleep, memory consolidation in, 63, 73, 267n4 Jump training, 78 Sobel, Andrew, 37–39, 64, 202, 125, 125, 125, Social Contagion of Memory, 117, 273n12 Social Impact on Memory, 116–117 Socioeconomic status and IQ, 174, 175 Songs as Means of Memory, 189 Spatial Practice, 4, 48–49, 66, 203–205; in baseball practice, 80; in commercial education, 240; memory consolidation by, 63, 75, 82; effort in, 4, 47, Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 310 Spaced practice (continued) 49, 81, 82, 205; index cards m, 64, 204; football team, 61-62; forget in, 63, 82; habit strength w, 63; intertwined, 64; lifelong learners, 219, 220; mass practice compared with 47, 48, 49, 204-205, 263-264n2; in medical education, 48-49, 212, 214-215, 264n3; under training at a military jump school, 71; neurogenesis w, 172; in pilot training, 12; medical students, 213–215; psychology students, 217; attempts at, 76; reload, 82, 268n10; in rereading, 14, 15; teaching power, 48; as research strategy, 203-205; as teaching strategy, 228; in trial, 32, 40, 43; time between sessions m, 63 Spatial disorientation pi lots, 108, 271n3 Spatial intelligence, 147 Spivey, Michelle, 36 Sports training: baseball, 6-7, 79-81, 85, 86, 206, 268n9; for football, 60-62, 120, 124, 198, 222; for ice hockey, 52, 65; interwoven practices in, 61, 62, 65, 80, 206; mass exercise in, 52, 80, 81; practice while playing, 85–86; search practices in, 62 Standard Tests, 18, 19, 30, 151 Sternberg, Robert, 18, 148–151, 276n9 Structural Building, 133, 153–155, 160–161, 277n13; in reflection, 155; and Learning Principles, 157 Students, 201–217; in Medical Education, 211–215 (see also Medical Education); in peer learning, 125-126, 230-231; in psychology course, 16, 89–90, 163, 186, 190–194, 216–217; reflection, 209–210; search practices, 201–205; self-education, 123–124, 274n18; seeded practice 203–205; study techniques (see Study Techniques); teacher's guide, 225–239 Learning Techniques, 16, 201–217; judgment calibration in, 210-211; elaboration in 207-208, 214, 215, 227, 231; generation in 208–209; interwoven practices in, 205–207; mass training or cramming, 3, 9–10, 31, 44, 48, 63, 203, 226; medical students, 211-215 (see also Medical Education); mnemonics of 186, 190–194, 196–197, 211; psychology students, 16, 89–90, 163, 186, 190–194, 211, 216–217; reflected in, 209–210; reload, 42, 202; search practice and test in, 41, Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 311 201–205, 262n15; seeded practice in 203–205; in student-centered learning, 124; Teacher's explanation, 226 Study Tips: For Students, 201–217; for Lifelong Learners, 217–225 Suggestion, Memory Distortion w, 113–114 Sullenberger, Chesley, 223 Summary Sheets, 208, 231 Surgery Training: Reflection w, 26–27; revelatory practice in the years 23–27, 29; seeded practice on, 48–49, 264n3 Swonk, Diane, 139 Synapses: Creation, 166–167; circumcision, 167; structures in twins, 170 Knowledge Synthesis, in Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning, 229 Teaching Methods, 225–239; for academic achievement, 232–234, 283n7; in Columbia Public School District (Illinois), 33–37, 238–239; fire hose manual m, 10, 12; learn the sections of, 89, 210, 232; and learning styles, 145–146, 275n6; Matthew, 234-236; McDermott, 227, 236-238; in medicine, 57-60 years old; peer manual in, 125-126, 230-231; Sobla, 37–39, 64, 125, 227; summary in, 208, 231; Thayer Method, 234, 236; clarity w, 228, 229-230, 237; of Wenderoth, 89, 208, 210, 228-234, 236 Teams, complementary areas of expertise in, 127-128 Testing, 4-5, 19-20; anxiety in, 91-92; benefits from, 42–43, 44, 125, 202–203, 263n17; at Columbia Public School District, 20, 33–37, 238, 258n13, 260n8; in commercial education, 240; plug to, 3, 31, 44, 48, 63, 203, 226; delayed, 43; dynamic, 151–152, 159, 277n12; errors in 39-40, 44, 91; as a false measure of ability, 19; influence of intimacy, 64; fear of failure in 91–92; feedback on responses in, 39–40, 44; frequency, 44, 125, 203–204, 263n17; in the illusion of mastery, 4–5, 16, 17, 116, 210; in measurement of intelligence, 147, 148–149; at Jiffy Lube University, 245, 246; in jump training, 69–70, 72; in the study of teaching style, 145; as learning tool, 19–20, 31, 125, 201–205, 258–259nn13–14; mass training or cramming for, 3, 31, 48, 63; in medical education, 57, 60, 213, 214, 265–266n10; memory cues Brown, Peter C. et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 312 Test (continued) in preparation for, 186, 190–194, 196–197, 211; multiple choice tests w, 41, 261n12, 262n14; open book, 40, 261–262n13; overestimation of competence in, 121-122; and group-peer learning, 230–231; in psychology course, 16, 90, 186, 190–194, 216, 217; remember after, 19–20, 29, 30–32, 259n5; repeat, 31-32, 44, 125, 203-204, 263-17; rereading compared to, 41, 42, 44, 202–203; rereading in preparation for 14, 15; restudy of the omitted material in 42, 211; as search practice, 19–20, 28–44, 201–203; as azimuth firing, 21, 235–236; short answer tests w, 41, 262n14; in staggered practice, 203–204, 205; normalized, 18, 19, 30, 151; students' attitude to, 42; in student-centered learning, 123–124; taxonomy of learning levels in, 232; as a learning strategy, 226-227, 232, 234-235, 236-238; in the Thayer method, 234 , 236 .

See also Search Practice Effect Testing, 19–20, 28–44, 212, 240 Group Testing, 230–231 Thayer, Sylvanus, 234 Thayer Method, 234, 236 Thinking, Fast and Slow (Kahneman), 105 Thomson, Donald M. , 115, 272n10 Time between exercises, 4, 48–49; 203-204, 215.

See also Staggered Practice Guidance for Lifelong Learners, 217–225; for students, 201–217; for teachers, 225–239; for trainers, 239–252 Tough, Paul, 182–183 Toyota Motor Company, 249 Training Methods, 239–252; Andersen's Innovations, 247–250; farm insurance, 50, 241–244; professional development in 239–240; Jiffy Lube, 245–247; of Inner Gate Acu Puncture, 250–252; Maixner groups, 240–241; for pilot (See Pilot training); for the police, 128–130, 222; in Sports (see Sports Coaching) Knowledge transfer, 85-86, 157, 278n14 Transparency in Teaching Strategies, 228, 229-230, 237 Tulving, Endel, 13-14, 258n8, 259n6, 267n, 818in, 818in, 818in, 81 194, 211, 282n22 Twin Neural Circuit Studies, 170 Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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Index ê 313 Unwanted difficulties, 92, 98–99 United States Military Academy at West Point, 234–236 University of California, Los Angeles, 170 University of Georgia, 60, 222 University of New Mexico, 14 University of Southern California, 216 University of Washington, 228 Varied Practice, 4, 51–53, 65–66; study of anagrams 52–53, 264–265n6; bean bag study, 46, 51; bird identification, 55; cognitive skills, 52–53; discrimination skills, 53–55, 101; effort w, 47, 81; football team, 61, 62; habit strength w, 63, 65; lifelong learners, 219; mass exercise vs. 47, 53–55; championship in, 84; in medical education, 58; engine, 46, 51–52, 264n5; in pilot training, 12; as teaching strategy, 228; transfer of learning w, 85–86 VARK approach to learning styles, 144 Virgin Atlantic Airways, 139 Virgin Records, 139 Visual images as memory cues, 186–188, 193–194, 195–196, 211, 224, 22128 Visual learning style, 144, 145 Washington University, 14, 209, 236; Medical School of, 56 Weatherford, Jack, 189 Wehrenberg, Jon, 36 Wenderoth, Mary Pat, 126, 208, 228-234, 236, 283n6; class structure used by, 232–233, 236; learn the sections used by, 89, 210, 232; summary sheet used by, 208, 231 West Point Military Academy, 234–236 White matter, 169–170 Working memory: in brain training exercises, 176, 177; capacity 91, 176, 196; coding information w, 100; and fluid intelligence, 176–178; number of digits available, 196; anxiety impact test, 91, 92 writer's block, 220–221 writing to learn, 89–90, 269n15; and learning section, 89, 210, 232 Wynveen, Richard, 248-250, 284n13 Young, Michael, 211-215, 228, 283n1 Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, 24 Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning, Harvard University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/liberty/detail.action?docID=3301452.

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(Video) LITERATURE REVIEW: Step by step guide for writing an effective literature review

FAQs

What is the focus of subject-centered? ›

Subject-centered designs include the organization of instructional activities in which the basic concepts and facts specific to each subject area are emphasized by the subject-matter expert by using subject-matter methods, tools and materials (Burton, 2010).

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What are the five approaches to curriculum design and development? ›

Next, five unique approaches to lesson planning are explored: behaviorist, constructivist, aesthetic, ecological, and integrated social–emotional learning. Each chapter provides the rationale for the approach, its theoretical background, practical applications, and critiques and considerations.

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What are the 3 approaches to curriculum? ›

There are three models of curriculum design: subject-centered, learner-centered, and problem-centered design.

What are the six approaches to curriculum? ›

According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009), six curriculum approaches are Behavioral Approach, Managerial Approach, Systems Approach, Academic Approach, Reconceptualist Approach, and Humanistic Approach.

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What is an example of subject-centered? ›

Subject-centered design

This type of curriculum design focuses on the educational material, rather than a specific learning style. For example, a teacher may make a curriculum design that focuses only on math concepts, using generalized activities that cater to a variety of learning style.

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What is an example of subject-centered method? ›

An example of a subject-centered curriculum is the spiral curriculum. The spiral curriculum is organized around the material to be taught, with less emphasis on the discipline structure itself, and more emphasis on the concepts and ideas.

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What are the four 4 phases generally most curriculum development models involve? ›

It also shows the interaction and relationships of the four essential phases of the curriculum development process: ( I) Planning, (II) Content and Methods, (III) Implementation, and (IV) Evaluation and Reporting.

What are the four 4 major components of curriculum design? ›

From a UDL perspective, we think of four components to a curriculum: the goals, the methods, the materials, and the assessment. They are very closely interrelated in that the goal is the primary thing with which a lesson begins and the others line up to achieve that goal.

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What are the 5 approach in education? ›

The five major approaches are Constructivist, Collaborative, Integrative, Reflective and Inquiry Based Learning ( 2C-2I-1R ).

What is the best model of curriculum? ›

The Tyler Model is the definitive prototype of curriculum development in the scientific approach, developed by Ralph Tyler in the 1940s.

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What are the 6 criteria for choosing content? ›

Seven Criteria for the Selection of Subject Matter or Content of the Curriculum

Self-sufficiency.
Significance.
Validity.
Interest.
Utility.
Learnability.
Feasibility.

Feb 7, 2015

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What is an example of a curriculum? ›

What is a curriculum example? For example, a school may use an accredited curriculum for language arts featuring numerous tools for delivering academic content: workbooks, presentation slides, activity suggestions, etc.

What are the basic principles of curriculum content? ›

These are:

balanced.
rigorous.
coherent.
vertically integrated.
appropriate.
focused.
relevant.

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What are the two main approaches in curriculum? ›

There are two main approaches to developing a curriculum: the product approach proposed by Ralph Tyler (1949) and the process approach usu- ally associated with Lawrence Stenhouse (1975).

Why is curriculum approach important? ›

Curriculum design is important because it centers a teacher's practice based on individual needs in the classroom. Any curriculum development effort should focus on being an effective educator, as it involves rethinking lessons that already exist to re-envision what would better prioritize the needs of the students.

What is a subject-centered curriculum called? ›

Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design that can be standardized across schools, states, and the country as a whole.

How do students learn in subject-centered curriculum? ›

Subject-centered curriculum design refers to reviewing the skills, ideas and facts that are critical to a given subject area. Learning activities are developed around these facts.

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What are the examples of student-centered curriculum? ›

Some examples of these activities include open debates, writing of newspaper articles, field trips, student-chosen projects, presentations, and written reflections on learning. These types of activities centralize learners and give them choices, fostering interest and passion in the subject.

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What is one example of teacher centered instructional strategy? ›

An example of direct (teacher-centered) instruction is when a teacher lectures a class on how a certain class of chemicals function. The advantages of its use include that it is simple, straightforward, and can work with the material in a state-mandated curriculum.

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What is centered methods? ›

Learner-centered teaching methods shift the focus of activity from the teacher to the learners. These methods include: Active learning, in which students solve problems, answer questions, formulate questions of their own, discuss, explain, debate, or brainstorm during class.

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What is an example of content centered education? ›

Example: Students are learning about food nutrition. For a class activity, they will make a meal to enjoy together. They use English to discuss kitchen supplies needed as well as cooking methods to prepare their meal. Then the class will head to the kitchen and start cooking!

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What are the four C's of curriculum planning? ›

The 4Cs: Creativity, Critical Thinking, Communication and Collaboration in Schools.

What are the 4 A's in curriculum development? ›

The 4As of adult learning: Activity, Analysis, Abstraction, and Application is illustrated in Figure 6-1. The constructivist approach to teaching asserts that a Learner gains and builds knowledge through experience. It recognizes that life experiences are rich resources for continued learning.

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What is the 4 step model of teaching? ›

Peyton's teaching approach is a stepwise teaching approach and consists of the following four steps: demonstration, deconstruction, comprehension and performance.

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What are the 7 pillars of curriculum design? ›

The curriculum should be designed on the basis of the following principles: > Challenge and enjoyment > Breadth > Progression > Depth > Personalisation and choice > Coherence > Relevance.

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What are the 3 important components of a successful curriculum? ›

There are five key elements to successful curriculum design:

Clear Purpose.
Strong Beliefs.
Big Ideas.
Common, Timely, and Purposeful Assessments.
Collaborative Design, Review, and Annual Revisions.

May 10, 2022

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What are the four models of curriculum? ›

There are at least 4 curriculum development models that have been recognized and often used; the Tyler model, Taba model, Oliva model, and Beaucham model. The model names are based on the names of curriculum developers.

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What is the rule of five in teaching? ›

“The Rule of 5” states that you must say five encouraging remarks to the child before you can say something negative. This formula comes from a simple idea that every parent or teacher would acknowledge: even children with good self-worth take corrections as criticisms.

What are the 4 C's strategy education? ›

The 21st century learning skills are often called the 4 C's: critical thinking, creative thinking, communicating, and collaborating. These skills help students learn, and so they are vital to success in school and beyond.

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What are examples of curriculum models in education? ›

For example, the product model that emphasizes plans and intentions, and the process model that focuses on activities and effects. Other examples include subject-centred (e.g. traditional or discipline-based curriculum), learner-centred, and problem-centred models.

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Which curriculum approach is followed in most of the schools? ›

Subject-centred approach : According to the subject-centred approach, curriculum is organized around separate subject areas of knowledge. This is one of the most widely used approaches in curriculum development.

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What phase of the curriculum process is very important as a teacher why? ›

Assessment is thus an important part of the teaching process.

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What are the 3 rules for creating a content? ›

There are guidelines your content should follow, certain aspects that make it appealing to a reader. From this realization came my three rules of content: Informative, Interesting and Relevant.

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What are the 5 C's of content? ›

Yet another writing formula I use — one I invented — is the "Five C's." It says that every good piece of content is clear, concise, compelling and credible, and has a call to action.

What are the most important 4 factors to create a great content? ›

9 Important Factors For Creating Content

Length of Content. ...
Value to the Reader. ...
Visuals are Important. ...
Infographics Are Powerful. ...
Mobile-Friendly Is a Must. ...
Keywords Still Rule. ...
Check and Recheck Spelling and Grammar. ...
Easy-to-Read Format.

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Jun 14, 2018

What are the 8 types of curriculum modifications? ›

Narrator: There are many ways to modify or change the curriculum. It can be useful to think about eight different categories or types of modifications: Environmental support, materials adaptation, activity simplification, child preferences, special equipment, adult support, peer support, and invisible support.

What is a simple sentence with curriculum? ›

The college has a liberal arts curriculum.

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How do you write a curriculum and give an example? ›

How to write a curriculum

Identify your content. When you first start planning, be sure that you clearly understand the content, material or ultimate objective of your curriculum. ...
Consider your learners. ...
Brainstorm learning outcomes. ...
Gather materials and activities. ...
Plan assessment and reflection. ...
Revise. ...
Collaborate.

Jun 24, 2022

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What is the process of curriculum? ›

The curriculum development process can be categorized into five basic steps: 1) needs assessment, 2) the planning session, 3) content development, 4) pilot delivery and revision, and 5) the completed curriculum package.

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What would be the first question to be asked in designing the curriculum? ›

What is the purpose? Who is the audience? What follows for structure and content? These are the three basic 'backward design' questions that curricular leaders would insist on asking repeatedly and would hold curriculum writers accountable for addressing.

Is curriculum a content or body of knowledge? ›

Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted is outlining what needs to be transmitted to be able to begin learning. This model benefits by indicating the relative importance of its topics and may or may not be taught in a specific order.

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What are the 5 characteristics of curriculum? ›

Let's look at examples of how to align curriculum and instruction to the elements of the Curriculum That Matters Framework, and how doing so can impact student learning. These five elements include practices, deep thinking, social and emotional learning, civic engagement, and equity.

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What are the characteristics of a good curriculum? ›

An effective and student-driven curriculum has the following characteristics:

Adapts to an Evolving World. ...
Contains Research-based Teaching Techniques. ...
Encourages Collaboration. ...
Meets the Needs of the Students. ...
Establishes Quantifiable Objectives. ...
Align Your Curriculum to the School's Core Values.

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May 26, 2022

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Why is a strong curriculum important? ›

Curriculum can provide consistent coverage of standards that ensures equitable instruction between classes, schools, districts, and states or provinces. With horizontal alignment, students get equal access to high-quality instruction regardless of their assigned class.

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What does subject focus mean? ›

Britannica Dictionary definition of FOCUS. 1. [count] : a subject that is being discussed or studied : the subject on which people's attention is focused — usually singular. The focus of our discussion/debate/attention will be drug abuse.

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What is the meaning of subject matter centered approach? ›

The subject matter approach is a teacher-centered approach to teaching where students are more passive participants in the learning process. Students listen to the information, participate in limited discussion, take notes, and retrieve or recall the information for evaluation purposes.

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What is the focus of the learner-centered principles of teaching? ›

"Learner centered is the perspective that couples a focus on individual learners--their heredity, experience, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and needs--with a focus on learning--the best available knowledge about learning and how it occurs and about teaching practices that are most effective ...

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Why is subject centered important? ›

The subject centred curriculum is better understood by teachers because their training was based on this method as specialization. The advocates of the subject-centred design have argued that intellectual powers of individual learners can be developed through this approach.

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What is an example of a focus topic? ›

Example: What environmental issues are most important in the Southwestern United States? Example: How does the environment fit into the Navajo world view? Example: What are the most prominent environmental issues of the last 10 years? Example: How does environmental awareness effect business practices today?

What are the 4 types of focus? ›

There are 4 different types:

Broad Attentional Focus.
Narrow Attentional Focus.
External Attentional Focus.
Internal Attentional Focus.

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What is an example of focus? ›

Noun He's successful, but he feels that his life lacks focus. His life lacks a focus. Verb She has an amazing ability to focus for hours at a time. I wasn't able to focus the camera.

What are the three types of subject matter? ›

The three broad categories of subject matter are: still life, portrait and landscape. Within these categories, of course, there are many subsets.

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What are the benefits of learner-centered approach? ›

Benefits of Learner-Based Curriculum

Labor Markets Need Problem Solvers. ...
Learner-Centered Curricula Encourages Diversity. ...
Students are Involved in Decision-Making. ...
Learner-Based Curricula Improves Retention of Knowledge. ...
Learner-Centric Models are More Fun. ...
Learner-Centered Curricula Facilitate Personalized Learning.

Aug 23, 2022

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What is the difference between subject centered curriculum and activity centered curriculum? ›

With a subject centered curriculum, abstract content is emphasized in teaching and learning. Mental achievement becomes a major goal. With activity centered curricula, pupils construct, make, do, and are actively involved in ongoing lessons and units of study.

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What is the best method of teaching? ›

There is no “best” method of teaching. However, many researchers today agree that including more student-centered learning approaches in the classroom can improve learning. Using only a teacher-centered approach leaves out many skills and learning opportunities for students.

What are the 4 principles in student-centered learning? ›

The four main characteristics of a student-centered learning model include voice, choice, competency-based progression, and continuous monitoring of student needs.

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What are the 5 characteristics of learner-centered teaching? ›

Engaging students, teaching problem-solving skills, getting students to think about thinking, allowing students to have control, and encouraging collaboration are all characteristics of learner-centered teaching.

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Which is the most important in learner-centered centered curriculum? ›

Hence, it could be concluded that child is most important in learner centred curriculum. Teacher centred curriculum: It refers to the active involvement of the teacher while the learners passively listen to the teacher.

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What is the problem with subject centered curriculum? ›

What are the disadvantages to a subject based curriculum? The main drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not student-centered. It is knowledge focused, rather than skills focused and some argue that it does not adequately prepare students for adult working life.

What is the conclusion of subject centered curriculum? ›

CONCLUSION. Subject-centred design requires a learner to accept the information being transmitted rather than challenge. Students will only believe in books and afraid to ask questions beyond the frame. This subject-centred curriculum will only foster passivity about learning and knowledge.

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EDUC 872 Book Review Guide In this assignment, you will write a 5-page book review in current APA format that focuses on the required Make It Stick: The Science of (2023)

FAQs

What is the focus of subject-centered? ›

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Which curriculum approach is followed in most of the schools? ›

Is curriculum a content or body of knowledge? ›

What is an example of focus? ›

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